Bibliography

Sources currently recorded on LinguaCommons: image and flag credits first, then works cited across our published language guides.

Image & Flag Credits

All flags on this site are unofficial visual markers for language groups (see the site footer). Entries marked [source under review] could not yet be traced to a definitive origin by reverse-image research; corrections are welcome via the contact page.

Blizzard Entertainment. Blood elf crest and Darnassus crest (game artwork used as Thalassian and Darnassian language markers). World of Warcraft. Documented at Warcraft Wiki. https://warcraft.wiki.gg/wiki/Thalassian
Thalmann, Christian, Jan van Steenbergen, Leland Paul, David J. Peterson, and Adrian Morgan. Conlang Flag (Tower of Babel before a rising sun; chosen by vote of the CONLANG mailing list, September 2004; released into the public domain). Used on the “What is a Conlang?” page. Documented at the Language Creation Society. https://conlang.org/conlang-flag/
“Did Ancient Egypt have a flag? If so what did it look like?” Reddit, r/vexillology (unofficial Ancient Egyptian design used for the Ancient Egyptian guide). https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/2vxjlx/did_ancient_egypt_have_a_flag_if_so_what_did_it/
“Flag for Ancient Sumer.” Reddit, r/vexillology (unofficial design used for the Sumerian guide). https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/7x8034/flag_for_ancient_sumer/
“My second try at a take on a Romulan flag.” Reddit, r/Star_Trek_ (fan design used for the Romulan guide). https://www.reddit.com/r/Star_Trek_/comments/1frhumu/my_second_try_at_a_take_on_a_romulan_flag/
“Pagan Greece, in honor of the Ancient Greek gods.” Reddit, r/vexillology (unofficial design used for the Ancient Greek guide). https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/bi6ryk/pagan_greece_in_honor_of_the_ancient_greek_gods/
“The flag of Durin.” Stoneworks MC Wiki, Fandom (fan design used for the Khuzdul/Dwarvish guide). https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/stoneworksmc/images/b/b4/The_flag_of_Durin.png/revision/latest?cb=20201126185836
“Vulcan Flag.” Wikimedia Commons (fan design used for the Vulcan guide). https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Vulcan_Flag.svg/1920px-Vulcan_Flag.svg.png?_=20210524174645
Toki Pona community flag — the light-blue field design associated with the Toki Pona community (jan Sonja / Sonja Lang). Community emblem used as the marker for the Toki Pona guide; user-supplied file. https://tokipona.org/
Glosa community flag — emblem used by the Glosa Education Organisation community. Used as the marker for the Glosa guide; user-supplied file. https://glosa.fias.fr/
“Bandiera Udine Provincia.” Novali Bandiere (Province of Udine flag, used for the Resian dialect guide). https://www.novalibandiere.it/shop/bandiere-italiane/bandiere-province-italiane/bandiera-udine-provincia/
Wikimedia Commons contributors. Official and community flag files: Esperanto (Verda Flago), Ido, Interlingua, Novial, Interslavic, Occidental/Interlingue, Klingon Empire trefoil; the German Bundesland flags (Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, North Rhine-Westphalia, Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein); the regional flags of Champagne-Ardenne, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Brittany (Gwenn-ha-du), Gascony, Burgenland, and the South Moravian Region; and the Assyrian (gold/blue Assur) flag. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
LinguaCommons. Simplified in-house renderings after the official designs: U.S. state flags, Canadian provincial and territorial flags, and the community flags of the Ainu, Basque Country (Ikurriña), Catalonia (Senyera), Cherokee Nation, Navajo Nation, Kurdistan (Alaya Rengîn), and Kanaky (FLNKS). Original designs are public/official symbols of their respective communities.
Kānaka Maoli flag (Hawaiian guide marker) — the green-red-yellow striped design popularized by Gene Simeona of Honolulu (2001), closely related to a design proposed by Louis “Buzzy” Agard (1993); its claimed pre-1843 origin is not historically verified. Documented in “Flag of Hawaii,” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Hawaii
Quenya and Sindarin fan flags; Ithkuil community flag — fan/community designs of uncertain individual authorship. [source under review]
Unofficial emblem flags for ancient and dialect guides: Xia-dynasty-styled emblem (Ancient Chinese), Torlakian-area design, “Classic Maya,” Inca banner (Classical Quechua), “Classic Aztec” (Classical Nahuatl), SPQR banner (Latin), St George's cross rendering (Middle/Old English), Holy Roman Empire double-eagle banners (Old/Middle High German) — traditional or fan designs whose exact file origins are still being traced. [source under review]
Study-method icons (TPRS, Extensive Reading, Task-Based Output, Shadowing, Comprehensible Input, HyperTTS) — illustrative images used as icons on the Study Methods guides, supplied by the site maintainer; exact photographic/illustration origins are still being traced. [source under review]

Works Cited in the Guides

Generated from the citation lists and curated resource links of published content (1456 sources), alphabetized. Guides with recorded citations also carry their own Notes & Bibliography section; some legacy guides still await claim-level source review.

'Armenia and Iran iv: Iranian influences in Armenian Language,' Encyclopaedia Iranica (based on H. Hubschmann); cf. R. Schmitt on Iranian loanwords in Armenian. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armenia-iv
'Georgia v: Linguistic Contacts with Iranian Languages,' Encyclopaedia Iranica (after M. Andronikashvili, Studies in Iranian-Georgian Linguistic Contacts). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-v
‘Lingua Franca Nova’, encyclopedic synthesis with citations to the official Elefen grammar, dictionary and FAQ (history, phonology, grammar, literature, flag). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova
'Romanians in Italy' (peste 1.070.000 de rezidenti in 2024, cea mai mare comunitate straina din Italia), cf. statisticile ISTAT. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians_in_Italy
'Romanians in Spain' (cca. 600.000 de cetateni romani in 2025, printre cele mai mari comunitati straine din Spania), cf. INE. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians_in_Spain
“Ainu language,” Wikipedia — Ainu as a language isolate of Hokkaido, the Kurils and Sakhalin; phonology and writing (Latin and extended katakana); UNESCO's 2009 ‘critically endangered’ classification of Hokkaido Ainu. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_language
“Ancient Assyrian” is the Assyrian dialect of Akkadian, an East Semitic cuneiform language attested from c. 2500 BCE; it is distinct from the modern Assyrian people's language, which is a Neo-Aramaic (Suret) tongue. See “Akkadian.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian
“Appendix:Esperanto Swadesh list,” Wiktionary, accessed July 4, 2026. The 207-item Swadesh core-vocabulary list for Esperanto with English glosses and IPA, used to build the flashcard deck. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Esperanto_Swadesh_list
“Appendix:Ido Swadesh list,” Wiktionary, accessed July 4, 2026. The 207-item Swadesh core-vocabulary list for Ido with English glosses and IPA, used to build the flashcard deck. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Ido_Swadesh_list
"Appendix:Interlingua Swadesh list," Wiktionary, accessed July 4, 2026, https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Interlingua_Swadesh_list. 207 basic Interlingua words with English definitions, used to seed the core-vocabulary entries of this guide's 297-word flashcard deck. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Interlingua_Swadesh_list
"Appendix:Interlingue Swadesh list," Wiktionary, accessed July 4, 2026, https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Interlingue_Swadesh_list. Semi-automatically generated from the Kemp and Pope word list; 207 basic Interlingue words with English definitions, used to seed the core-vocabulary entries of this guide's flashcard deck. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Interlingue_Swadesh_list
“Appendix:Novial Swadesh list,” Wiktionary, accessed July 4, 2026. The 207-item Swadesh core-vocabulary list for Novial with English glosses, used to build the flashcard deck. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Novial_Swadesh_list
„Bavarian language, alphabet and pronunciation“ und „Useful phrases in Bavarian“, Omniglot — Laut-/Schreibungsüberblick, Grüße (Servus, Griaß di, Griaß God, Pfiat di) und Alltagswortschatz. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/bavarian.htm
„Bavarian language“, Wikipedia (englisch) — Österreichisch-Bairisch als meistgesprochener oberdeutscher Dialekt (~12 Mio. Sprecher, ~125.000 km²), die Zweige Nord/Mittel/Süd, Perfekt statt Präteritum, Kasus nur am Artikel, ~45 % reine Dialektverwendung im Alltag (2008). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_language
„Berlinisch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Berlinisch als städtischer Misch-/Metrolekt, ick/icke, dat/wat, jut, Schrippe, Kiez sowie der Akkusativ-Dativ-Zusammenfall („Akkudativ“). https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinisch
“Breton (Brezhoneg),” Omniglot — Southwestern Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; arrival from Britain in Armorica; the Latin alphabet, the letter c'h vs ch, ñ nasalisation, the peurunvan orthography; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/breton.htm
“Breton language,” Wikipedia — history and Brittonic origin; the KLT vs Gwenedeg (Vannetais) dialects and neo-Breton; grammar (flexible/fronting word order, definite and indefinite articles, two genders, four mutations, ober-auxiliary verb pattern, conjugated prepositions); the Diwan schools and festoù-noz. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_language
"Brezhoweb." Breton-language web television. Described in the Breton regional press and by France 3 / ICI Armorique as the first web television broadcasting exclusively in the Breton language. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://www.brezhoweb.bzh/
„Burgenland Croatian“, Wikipedia (engleski) — regionalna varijanta čakavskoga narječja hrvatskoga, 19 412 govornika u Gradišću (2001.) i procjena ~70 000, doseljenje za hrvatsko-osmanskih ratova iz doline Une, vlastiti pisani standard na čakavskoj osnovi, usporedna tablica (črna, rič, Jezuš Kristuš, dolnji), skupine govora (Dolinci, Poljanci, Hati, Štoji, Vlahi, Grob), Klimpuški misal 1501., novine, Mali princ 1998., službeni status u 6 od 7 okruga od 1987., UNESCO „definitely endangered“. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgenland_Croatian
"Colombian Spanish," Wikipedia, together with the LinguaCommons Colombian Spanish research dossier (sources S07–S11) — the popular regional variety names, the four-way address system including sumercé, the Instituto Caro y Cuervo and its Diccionario de colombianismos (2nd ed., 2018), the Academia Colombiana de la Lengua (1871), and the Paisa vusté/vusted variant. The dossier rates several of these moderate confidence; those ratings are carried through in the prose above. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian_Spanish
“Common phrases in Ainu” and the lesson series, Aynu itak — Ainu Language Grammar Guide (Silja Ijas, 2023–2026), drawing on the descriptive tradition of Tamura Suzuko — greetings, courtesy phrases, colour terms, person markers (ku-/e-/eci-/a-), lexical negation (k-eraman / k-erampewtek), and the request construction with yan / en-kore yan. https://www.aynuitak.org/vocabulary-phrases/ainu-phrases
"Constructed language," Wikipedia — definition and taxonomy (auxlang / artlang / engelang), history from Hildegard of Bingen's Lingua Ignota and the seventeenth-century philosophical languages through Volapük, Esperanto and the modern artistic and engineered traditions; native Esperanto speakers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language
“Cornish (Kernewek),” Omniglot — Southwestern Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; revival history; the Standard Written Form and earlier orthographies; alphabet and pronunciation; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/cornish.htm
“Counting in Northern Sami,” Of Languages and Numbers (Alexis Ulrich), with numerals sourced from the UiT Giellatekno Sámi numerals generator — cardinals 1–10, the -nuppelohkái teens, the logi-based tens, čuođi (100) and duhat (1,000). https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-northern-sami/en/sme/
"Darnassian (Language)," Moon Guard Wiki — representative role-play reconstruction layer, used here only as clearly labelled non-official material. https://moon-guard.fandom.com/wiki/Darnassian_(Language)
"Darnassian," Warcraft Wiki — the complete catalogue of officially translated Darnassian (Ishnu-alah, Ande'thoras-ethil, Elune-Adore, Tor ilisar'thera'nal, shan'do/thero'shan, the five -drassil world-tree glosses, Shaha lor'ma, Xaxas, Zin-Azshari), the internal-template confirmation, the parser explanation, untranslated lines, RPG 'Darnassian runes' note, and the root-speculation table. https://warcraft.wiki.gg/wiki/Darnassian
"Duployan shorthand," Wikipedia — script classification, the line/arc consonant and circle/orienting vowel structure, the adaptation list with dates, the Sloan thick-stroke R, the Chinook writing structural differences, ISO 15924 Dupl (755), and the absence of an agreed alphabetical order. Cross-checked against the Unicode proposal where the two overlap. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duployan_shorthand
"Duployan, Range: 1BC00–1BC9F" and "Shorthand Format Controls, Range: 1BCA0–1BCAF," The Unicode Standard, Unicode Consortium — block ranges, the thick letter selector at U+1BC9D, and the Chinook Likalisti and punctuation signs. https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1BC00.pdf
“Esperanto,” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed July 4, 2026. Overview of Esperanto's creation by L. L. Zamenhof (1887), its design and its status as the most widely spoken constructed language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Esperanto
"France Bleu Breizh Izel" / "Ici Breizh Izel." Wikipedia. Accessed August 4, 2026. Public service generalist radio station serving Lower Brittany, the traditionally Breton-speaking area, carrying Breton-language programming; rebranded within the Ici network. Caution-tier tertiary source, used here only for the station's identity and remit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_Bleu_Breizh_Izel
"From Shaw to Shavian." shavian.info — Shaw's will and its 1957 invalidation, the £8,300 out-of-court settlement, the 467 competition entrants and four joint winners, Read's appointment and completion on 18 August 1960. https://www.shavian.info/
“German phonology,” Wikipedia, accessed July 19, 2026; German is not a tone language—pitch conveys intonation and emphasis, not lexical meaning. See also Klaus J. Kohler, Einführung in die Phonetik des Deutschen, 2nd ed. (Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 1995). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_phonology
“Gujarati (guj).” Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International. Speaker totals (about 57 million L1 and 5 million L2), geographic distribution, and the language's protected status in South Africa. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/guj/
“Gujarati language.” Wikipedia. Accessed August 14, 2026. Official status in Gujarat and in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, inclusion among the scheduled languages of India, descent from Old Gujarati, and the literary tradition from Narsinh Mehta to Gandhi's Gujarati autobiography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_language
“Gujarati phonology.” Wikipedia. Accessed August 14, 2026. The consonant inventory, the four-way stop contrast, the retroflex series, and the contrastive murmured (breathy-voiced) vowels. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_phonology
“Gujarati script.” Wikipedia. Accessed August 14, 2026. The script as an abugida derived from Devanagari, distinguished by the loss of the shirorekhā and by modified letterforms; the inherent vowel and the mātrā system. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_script
„Hamburger Platt“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Sammelbegriff für die niederdeutschen Varietäten Hamburgs, Zugehörigkeit zum Nordniedersächsischen, Geest-/Marsch-Gliederung samt Wortpaartabelle (geven/geben, maken/moken, Köök, töven/teuben, baven/boben), Finkenwerder/Vierländer/Hafenplatt, Hamburgisches Wörterbuch, heutige Verbreitung. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_Platt
„Hessische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — rheinfränkisch-mitteldeutsche Einordnung, Gliederung (Süd-/Mittel-/Nord-/Osthessisch), Appel/Apfel-Isoglosse, ch-sch-Zusammenfall (Kirche/Kirsche, Hyperkorrektur „Kirchbaum“), Präteritumschwund südlich des Mains (ich bin kumme), Genitivumschreibung (des Buch vum Schorsch / em Schorsch soi Buch), „Äbbelwoihessisch“, Wörterbücher und SyHD-Projekt. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessische_Dialekte
„Holsteinisch“ (Holsteinisches Niederdeutsch), Wikipedia (deutsch) — Variante des Niederdeutschen im Landesteil Holstein, Unterdialekte (Reinfelder, Dithmarscher, Fehmarner, Ostholsteiner Platt), Thomas Manns Verwendung des Reinfelder Platts in den Buddenbrooks, Nachbardialekte und Missingsch, Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holsteinisch
“Ido,” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed June 3, 2026. Overview of Ido's origin as a 1907 reform of Esperanto and its place among constructed auxiliary languages. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ido
"Interlingua," Wikipedia, accessed July 4, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingua. IALA history (1937–1951) under Alexander Gode; naturalistic extraction of the international vocabulary from English, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese; Latin-based near-phonetic orthography and stress. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingua
"Interlingue grammar," Wikipedia, accessed July 4, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingue_grammar. Articles (li/un, plural -s/-es); the pronoun table (subject/object/possessive); verb endings -ar/-er/-ir with past -t, future va, conditional vell, perfect ha, pluperfect hat, precative ples, hortative lass, optative mey; esser → es/esse; the correlative table; de Wahl's rule (1909) and its six exceptions; the affix list; attested sentences (Il ha bon laborat; Noi serchat long; Hay du homes in li dom; Quo tu fa?; un amant cat; li dom sta constructet). Grammar sections cite F. Haas, Grammatica de Interlingue (1956). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingue_grammar
"Interlingue," Wikipedia, accessed July 4, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingue. Creation 1922 (Kosmoglott, Tallinn) and 1949 renaming (91 % vote); Edgar de Wahl biography (Auli 1906–1921, 1943 Tallinn bombing, death 1948); ISO codes ie/ile; Cosmoglotta history; the Lord's Prayer sample text; Radicarium Directiv (1925). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingue
"International auxiliary language," Wikipedia — the IAL goal and design principles, the Volapük/Esperanto/Ido/Interlingua/Occidental/Novial lineage, and zonal constructed languages (Interslavic). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_language
“Interslavic numbers,” Omniglot (information by Wolfgang Kuhl), accessed July 4, 2026. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractions and multiplicatives. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/interslavic.htm
“Interslavic–English dictionary (Medžuslovjansko-anglijsky slovnik),” interslavic-dictionary.com, accessed July 4, 2026. The community dictionary with full declension and conjugation tables, used to confirm word forms. https://interslavic-dictionary.com/
“Interslavic,” Wikipedia, accessed July 4, 2026. History (Slovianski/Novoslovienski merger, 2011), the comparative sample-word table, and the Ovca i konji (Schleicher's fable) sample text with English translation used for the §14 reading. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interslavic
“Japan opens the Upopoy Museum, the first dedicated to Ainu indigenous identity,” LifeGate — the Upopoy National Ainu Museum and Park in Shiraoi opened to visitors on 12 July 2020; ‘Upopoy’ means ‘singing together in a large group’. https://www.lifegate.com/upopoy-museum-ainu-japan
“Japan: New Ainu Law Becomes Effective,” Library of Congress Global Legal Monitor — the Ainu Policy Promotion Act (enacted May 2019), recognising the Ainu as an Indigenous people of Japan for the first time in law. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2019-08-05/japan-new-ainu-law-becomes-effective/
"Jutarnji list." Wikipedia. Accessed August 4, 2026. Daily newspaper launched 1998, headquartered in Zagreb; recorded as the second most-read daily in Croatia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutarnji_list
"Kamloops Wawa," Wikipedia, drawing on Le Jeune's own account (Northwest Journal of Linguistics) and the Dictionary of Canadian Biography — the 1890 New Westminster meeting and Chiappini's proposal, Charlie Alexis Mayous at Coldwater and Douglas Lake, the hectograph and mimeograph, the 25 May 1891 first issue, the 2 February 1892 relaunch and the growth to 300 copies, and the 1893 Durieu Old Testament supplement. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamloops_Wawa
"Khakas language." Wikipedia (accessed 2026-07-18) — speaker figures by census (~29,000–42,600), vowel/consonant tables, the ten-case paradigm on от, script history (Cyrillic 1939, refinements 1947/1962), dialect list. Caution-tier tertiary source, used where cross-checkable. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khakas_language
"Khuzdûl," The One Wiki to Rule Them All (Fandom) — corpus size (~100 words), comparison with Quenya/Sindarin attestation, and film-era Neo-Khuzdul overview. Fan wiki; used for framing, cross-checked against Tolkien Gateway. https://lotr.fandom.com/wiki/Khuzd%C3%BBl
"Khuzdul," Tolkien Gateway — attested corpus (battle-cry, Balin's tomb, place-name glosses, Aulë/Mahal origin, iglishmêk), Semitic modelling, and secrecy of the language; entries cite Tolkien's primary texts (LotR Appendices E–F, The Silmarillion, The War of the Jewels, The Peoples of Middle-earth). https://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Khuzdul
"Khuzdul: mother tongue of Tolkien's dwarves," Turbolangs — secondary overview of Khuzdul structure and the Hebrew comparison in Tolkien's letters; used as a supplementary framing source. https://turbolangs.com/en-gb/khuzdul-dwarves-tolkien/
„Kölsch (Sprache)“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — ripuarische Einordnung, Endungstilgung (Woch, Mädche, Maat), g→j (jesaat), Verbalableitungen (klaafe → dä Klaaf), Liaison und das Zitat „Et es, wie et es“ aus dem Rheinischen/Kölschen Grundgesetz, Akademie för uns kölsche Sproch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6lsch_(Sprache)
“Last words: Language of China’s emperors in peril,” Gulf News (AFP), reporting UNESCO’s critically endangered classification and roughly nine remaining mother-tongue speakers in Sanjiazi village. https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/arts-culture/last-words-language-of-chinas-emperors-in-peril-1.1853999
“Livonian language revival,” Wikipedia, on the roughly twenty fluent (B1+) speakers and approximately 210 people who identify as Livonian and use it at an A1–A2 level. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_language_revival
“Livonian language,” Wikipedia, on Livonian as a Finnic language, the death of last native speaker Grizelda Kristiņa on 2 June 2013, its UNESCO critically endangered status, and the reported new native speaker Kuldi Medne (b. 2020). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_language
“Manchu, Once China’s Official Language, Could Lose Its Voice,” Sixth Tone, on the collapse from roughly one million speakers at the end of the Qing to fewer than a hundred fluent speakers today, concentrated in Heilongjiang villages such as Sanjiazi. https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1000272/manchu,-once-chinas-official-language,-could-lose-its-voice
"Mapuche language." Wikipedia. Accessed 2026. Caution-tier tertiary source, densely referenced to the specialist literature and used here as the conduit for: the speaker-figure series (1982, ~2000 Argentina, the 2002 study, the 2007 Ethnologue figure and the 2013 transmission data); the ethnic population figure; the grafemario inventory and the gvxam ~ ngütram comparison; the segmental phonology, which it attributes to Sadowsky et al., a primary not located for this build; the eight-subgroup Croese dialect classification and the Huilliche mutual-intelligibility claim; the direct/inverse/passive forms of pen; the Trarimansunparkelayayngu morpheme breakdown; the animate/inanimate classes, pu, chi/ti and kiñe; word-order tendencies; the evidential and particle inventory; the Quechua doublets inti/antü, killa/küllen, cachi/chadi; the third-person-singular adaptation of Spanish loan verbs; and the Galvarino communal official-status fact. Never used here as sole authority for a claim presented as high confidence. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapuche_language
“Mayan” is a family of about thirty languages; the Classic-period (c. 250–900 CE) hieroglyphic inscriptions record mainly a prestige language of the Ch'olan branch (Classic Ch'olti'an). Mayan languages are spoken by roughly six million people today. See “Mayan languages.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_languages
„Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Einordnung ins Ostniederdeutsche; definierendes Merkmal: Hebung/„Erhöhung“ von mnd. ê/ô vor r (ierst, hüren, Uhr ‚Ohr‘); Diphthongierung hei/tau mit Beispielreihe to/töven/Aven/grön → tau/täuben/Aben/gräun; dat gegenüber märkisch det; Teildialekte Schwerinerisch, Vorpommersch, Strelitzisch; „breite“ Aussprache; Fritz Reuters an der Standardorthographie orientierte Schreibung; Richard Wossidlos Mecklenburgisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
„Moravian dialects“, Wikipedia (anglicky) — klasifikace čtyř skupin, příkladová věta „Dej mouku ze mlýna na vozík“ ve třech nářečních podobách, hanácké/východomoravské/lašské hláskové rysy, archaismy (naša, ovca, chcu, dušu, ju, deň), koncovky -ijó/-ijú, sčítání 2011 (108 469 mluvčích), hantec a šalina. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_dialects
"Nivkh languages." Wikipedia. Accessed August 4, 2026. Caution-tier tertiary source, densely referenced to the specialist literature; the conduit through which the in-repo research dossier obtained the alphabet table, the attested consonant-alternation examples, the attested greeting text and the census series. Never used here as sole authority for a substantive claim. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivkh_languages
„Nordniedersächsisch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Dialektgruppe des Niedersächsischen (Plattdeutsch), Eigenname Noordneddersassisch, Sprachgebiet (Großteil Niedersachsens, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein), Rolle als medienpräsentes „Standard-Niedersächsisch“ mit geringer Binnenvariation, Verweis auf Niedersächsisches und Hamburgisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordnieders%C3%A4chsisch
“Northern Sámi language and alphabet,” Omniglot — classification within the Sámi/Uralic family; ~25,000 speakers across Norway, Sweden and Finland; orthographic history (Rask 1832; unified 1979, revised 1985); special letters and pronunciation; official status (Finnmark/Troms and municipalities incl. Kautokeino and Karasjok, ~90% speakers); education and the newspaper Ávvir. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/northernsami.htm
“Novial,” Wikipedia, accessed July 4, 2026. Overview of Novial's history, Jespersen's 1928/1930 revisions and the 1990s “Novial 98” update. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novial
“Novial/AIL Introduction,” Wikibooks, accessed July 4, 2026. A structured, browsable edition of Jespersen's An International Language grammar used to verify paradigms. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Novial/AIL_Introduction
“Numbers in Ainu,” Omniglot — the Ainu cardinal numerals one to ten and the traditional vigesimal (base-20) counting system. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/ainu.htm
“Numbers in Breton,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (unan, daou/div, tri/teir, pevar/peder, pemp, c'hwec'h, seizh, eizh, nav, dek; ugent 20; kant 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/breton.htm
“Numbers in Cornish,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (onan, dew, tri, peswar, pymp, hwegh, seyth, eth, naw, deg; ugens 20; kans 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/cornish.htm
“Numbers in Esperanto,” Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, confirming the regular ordinal in -a. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/esperanto.htm
“Numbers in Ido,” Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, including the ordinal suffix -esma. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/ido.htm
“Numbers in Novial,” Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026. Cardinal and ordinal numerals in the Novial Lexike forms, including the ordinal suffix -esmi. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/novial.htm
“Numbers in Scottish Gaelic,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (aon, dhà, trì, ceithir, còig, sia, seachd, ochd, naoi, deich; fichead 20; ceud 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/gaelic.htm
“Numbers in Welsh,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (un, dau/dwy, tri, pedwar, pump, chwech, saith, wyth, naw, deg; ugain 20; cant 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/welsh.htm
„Obersächsische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — ostmitteldeutsche Einordnung (thüringisch-obersächsische Gruppe), Meißnisch/Osterländisch, Entrundung (bäse, Biehne), Konsonantenschwächung (Kardoffeln, Babba), Monophthongierung (Been, Boom), Hebung (Schnii), Dialekt-vs.-Regiolekt-Befund (Siebenhaar) und Wörterbuch der obersächsischen Mundarten. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obers%C3%A4chsische_Dialekte
“Otto Jespersen,” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed June 3, 2026. Biography of the Danish linguist who designed Novial and his place in the study of language. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-Jespersen
“Pennsylvania Dutch language,” Wikipedia — variety of Palatine German (esp. rural Mannheim/Ludwigshafen dialects); autonyms Deitsch/Pennsilfaanisch; ≈300,000 native speakers; Amish/Mennonite growth; “Dutch” unrelated to the Netherlands; English loans (bet, depend, tschaepp, tschumbe) and sample sentences (“Ich bet, du kannscht Deitsch schwetze”, “Es dependt en wennig, waer du bischt”); two orthography schools (English-based vs Buffington–Barba German-based) with the Lord's Prayer comparison text; three genders, two-case nouns + three-case pronouns, genitive → em Mann sei Hund, dative decline incl. the Kalona under-40 finding (Huffines); English-origin verbs as German weak verbs; Hiwwe wie Driwwe (1997, ~100 authors), Edition Tintenfaß (2006), Wycliffe NT, Miller dictionary (2013) and grammar (2014); ISO 639-3 pdc; not endangered per UNESCO. Expanded (run 119, re-fetched 2026-07-03): native-speaker estimates 237,000 (ACS 2016–2020) to 350,000 (2012) + ≈3,000 L2; transmission by practically all Old Order Amish and horse-and-buggy Old Order Mennonites (Amish population ≈227,000, 2008); exceptions — Virginia Old Order Mennonites (English) and Bernese German / Alsatian Amish communities in Indiana; Kutztown University minor in Pennsylvania German Studies (two full semesters of the dialect), a weekly dialect radio program, and annual Lutheran/Reformed services in Deitsch. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language
„Phonetics of informal speech: The Viennese monophthongization“ — phonetische Untersuchung, die die Monophthongierung als graduelles Kontinuum statt als kategorialen Umschlag beschreibt. https://www.academia.edu/681185/Phonetics_of_informal_speech_The_Viennese_monophthongization
“Researchers from the University of Warsaw will help to preserve the Wymysorys language,” Science in Poland, on the revival led by Tymoteusz Król and the University of Warsaw “Artes Liberales” programme, including children’s classes. https://scienceinpoland.pl/en/news/news,408701,researchers-from-the-university-of-warsaw-will-help-to-preserve-the-wymysorys-language.html
„Resian dialect“, Wikipedia (angleško) — rezijanščina kot slovensko narečje (primorska skupina, koroška osnova), 929 prebivalcev občine Rezija (2022), UNESCO „definitely endangered“, zadihani centralizirani samoglasniki, izguba tonemov in kolikosti, Steenwijkov pravopis 1994 (ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, w) s preglednico primerov (čäs, pïsat, kjüč, klubük, patök, žanä, zalën, šëjst, byt, vys), določni/nedoločni člen, klitična podvojitev (Ja si ti rëkal tabë), štiri standardne oblike (Bila, Njïva, Osoanë, Solbica), peticija 2004 (78,9 %), katekizma iz 18. stoletja, prva knjiga 1923–33, Te Mali Prïncip (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resian_dialect
„Revisiting areal and lexical diffusion: the case of Viennese Monophthongization in Austria's traditional dialects“, Linguistics (De Gruyter) — areale und lexikalische Ausbreitung der Wiener Monophthongierung. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ling-2021-0105/html?lang=en
"Rihannsu (language)," Star Trek Expanded Universe wiki — grammar of the fan tradition: SVO/VOS word order with object-fronted imperatives and the four noun declensions. https://stexpanded.fandom.com/wiki/Rihannsu_(language)
"Romulan alphabet and the Rihannsu language," Omniglot — the fan-standardized Romulan script, its sound values, and romanization conventions. https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/romulan.htm
"Romulan Dictionary," StarBase 118 wiki — fan-standard vocabulary in the Duane tradition (Aefvadh, Hann'yyo, rank terms khre'Riov/Riov/erei'Riov, everyday phrases). https://wiki.starbase118.net/wiki/Romulan_Dictionary
"Romulan language," Memory Alpha — screen-canon Romulan: jolan tru (TNG 'Unification'), Tal Shiar, Qowat Milat and zhal makh (Star Trek: Picard), and the production history of on-screen Romulan lettering. https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Romulan_language
"Romulan language," Memory Beta — Diane Duane's Rihannsu: the Old High Vulcan 'aging' origin, Rihan/Rihannsu ('the Declared'), ch'Rihan/ch'Havran, mnhei'sahe, and the unpublished Romulan dictionary pitch. https://memory-beta.fandom.com/wiki/Romulan_language
“Rosetta Spotlight: Yurok — a critically endangered language,” The Rosetta Project, on Yurok’s endangerment and documentation. https://rosettaproject.org/blog/02010/jul/20/rosetta-spotlight-yurok/
“Sámi languages,” Wikipedia, and Ságastallamin (UiT, The Arctic University of Norway), “The Sámi languages” — Northern Sámi as roughly 90% of Sámi speakers; UNESCO endangerment classifications across the Sámi family (Northern Sámi ‘definitely endangered’; smaller varieties more severe); all Sámi languages listed in the UNESCO Atlas. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages
„Schwäbische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Klassifikation als alemannische Dialektgruppe, sch-Laut vor d/t und b/p (Angschd, Raschbl), Konsonantenschwächung (Dag, Schdual), fehlendes Schwa, Diminutiv -le mit Plural -la (Mädle/Mädla), 2. Ps. Sg. auf -sch(t), „mir“ für „wir“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%A4bische_Dialekte
“Scottish Gaelic,” Omniglot — Goidelic/Insular-Celtic classification; the 18-letter alphabet and grave accent; broad/slender consonants; lenition and the digraphs bh, mh, dh, gh, ch, th; VSO word order; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/gaelic.htm
"Serbo-Croatian phonology." Wikipedia. Accessed July 2026. Caution-tier tertiary source, densely referenced to the specialist literature (Browne 1993; Kordić 2006; Alexander 2006; Lehiste & Ivić 1963/1986; Kapović 2007; Ćavar 2011) and used here only where it summarises those works: the palatal-versus-postalveolar affricate contrast and its reported merger in much spoken Croatian; the absence of final-obstruent devoicing, unlike most Slavic languages; nasal place assimilation and glottal-stop epenthesis; Kapović's "phantom phoneme" objection to analysing the long Ijekavian yat reflex as a diphthong; the Lehiste and Ivić finding that all stressed syllables carry a high tone and that rising versus falling is judged by carry-over into the first post-tonic syllable; the accent-shift frequency differences between Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian idioms; and the observation that even highly educated Zagreb speakers may have no tones and variable stress placement. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_phonology
"Shavian Alphabet." Omniglot — the 1958 competition and 467 entries, the UDHR Article 1 sample text used here, and the judgement that Shavian was never seriously considered as an alternative for writing English. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/shavian.htm
"Shavian alphabet." Wikipedia — Shaw's three criteria and BBC/Sweet background, tall/deep/short letter classes and Pitman rotation pairs, namer dot, the five one-letter words, stress ambiguity (billow/below, convict), Received Pronunciation basis and the father–bother problem, 1962 Penguin Androcles, Quikscript, the Ŝava-Alfabeto letter table and its reassignment logic, Unicode 4.0 block U+10450–U+1047F and font/CSUR status, later transliterated editions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shavian_alphabet
"Standard Croatian Pitch Accent: Fact and Fiction." Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS), Melbourne, 2019. Peer-reviewed conference paper arguing that unambiguous minimal pairs distinguished solely by pitch accent form a small, well-attested set and that the prescriptive four-way system is not consistently realised in the speech of many speakers of the standard. The full text could not be fetched for this build; the paper is reported at the level available from its title and abstract together with the corroborating summary at note 10, and is flagged as an open question rather than a settled finding. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs/icphs2019
"Tagalog language," Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog-language
"Telugu language," Wikipedia — speaker figures, official status, the Proto-Dravidian *ten etymology and C. P. Brown's rejection of the Trilinga derivation, Andronov's c. 1000 BCE dating, the Bhattiprolu and Kalamalla inscriptions, the dynastic court-language history, Pavuluri Mallana, Avadhānaṃ, and the Carnatic music connection. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_language
"Tengwar." Wikipedia — dating (late 1920s/early 1930s; Lonely Mountain jar 1937; Appendix E 1955), Sarati and Valmaric antecedents and the Lodwick comparison, in-fiction history and terminology (tengwa/sarat/tîw/cirth), témar and tyeller structure and the parmatéma worked example, extended stems, ómatehtar vs full modes and tehtar shapes, carriers, classical vs general-mode series values, post-Tolkien modes for Spanish/German/Swedish/French/Finnish/Italian/Hungarian/Welsh/Esperanto/Lojban, Everson's 1997 proposal and the deleted U+16080–U+160FF roadmap slot, CSUR U+E000–U+E07F and digits, the Dan Smith ISO 8859-1 de-facto encoding and its flaws, font list, fandom and tattoos. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengwar
“Texas German,” Wikipedia — group of German dialects (Texasdeutsch) of the descendants of mid-19th-century settlers; Texas German belt from Houston into the Hill Country (New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Boerne, Comfort …), plus Bulverde, Pflugerville, Walburg, Muenster, Schulenburg, Brenham, Industry, New Ulm and Weimar; German held status alongside Spanish from 1846 until World War I; ~90,000 speakers (2.57%) in 1907, ~160,000 (2.49%) in 1940, ~70,000 (0.73%) by the 1960s, ≈5,000 (0.017%) today, mostly aged 70+, with extinction expected by 2035; 1893 English-only schooling and WWI/WWII anti-German sentiment ended transmission; ≈5–6% English loan vocabulary, U.S. measurement/legal terms, dialect leveling, and coinages like Luftschiff “airplane” (Standard German: airship); Boas quote (“an odd mixture of English and 19th-century German”); 2000-Census speakers-at-home (Fredericksburg 1,035 = 12.48%, New Braunfels 840, Schulenburg 150, Stonewall 85, Boerne 70, Harper 65, Comfort 45; Gillespie County 2,270 = 11.51%; 82,100 in Texas overall); documentary All Güt Things (2016) and podcast Yellow of the Egg (2022); documented by Glenn Gilbert (1960s) and Hans C. Boas (Texas German Dialect Project, UT Austin; The Life and Death of Texas German, 2009). Re-fetched 2026-07-03. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_German
„Texas German“, Radiosendung in der NDR-Reihe Zwischen Hamburg und Haiti von Guido Meyer, 18. Dezember 2022 (26 Minuten) — deutschsprachige Radiodokumentation über den Dialekt; verlinkt im deutschen Wikipedia-Artikel „Texasdeutsch“ (abgerufen 2026-07-03). https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/info/epg/Zwischen-Hamburg-und-Haiti-Texas-German,sendung1308996.html
„Texasdeutsch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Auswanderung über den Mainzer Adelsverein unter Prinz Carl zu Solms-Braunfels (Gründung Fredericksburgs 1846); Sprachinsel im Hill Country durch Englisch-Verweigerung der Siedler, Ende der Isolation mit dem Umzug der Gillespie County Fair nach Fredericksburg 1889; ab 1900 Englischlehrer, im Ersten Weltkrieg Verbot des Deutschunterrichts; Grammatik: kein Genitiv, Zusammenfall von Dativ und Akkusativ, zunehmend deutsch-englische Mischsprache je nach sozialer Kontaktsituation; Abgrenzung vom Texas-Elsässischen (Medina County; Roesch 2012); Literatur: Boas 2009, Gilbert 1964, Nicolini 2004. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texasdeutsch
"Thalassian (Language)," Moon Guard Wiki — representative fan/role-play reconstruction layer (extended lexicon and grammar conventions), used here only as clearly labelled non-official material. https://moon-guard.fandom.com/wiki/Thalassian_(Language)
"Thalassian," Warcraft Wiki / Wowpedia — the complete catalogue of officially translated Thalassian phrases and words (Bal'a dash malanore, Shorel'aran, Anar'alah belore, Anu belore dela'na, sin'dorei/quel'dorei/ren'dorei glosses, Quel'Thalas 'High Home', rea 'and', the in-game parser explanation), each cited to its game, novel or developer source. https://warcraft.wiki.gg/wiki/Thalassian
"The alphabet" and "A masterpiece of design." shavian.info — the full 48-letter inventory with IPA values and Androcles name-words, the phonemic-not-phonetic argument, the vowel+r compound letters and rhotic/non-rhotic reading, Read's alphabetical order per Shaw-Script 3 p. 15, the typewriter decomposition of compound letters, the two-thirds page-space figure. https://www.shavian.info/alphabet/
“The saga of the Ainu language,” The UNESCO Courier, and the Endangered Languages Project entry for Ainu — on the very small number of remaining fluent/native speakers and the collapse of family transmission; the 2006 Hokkaido survey (304 of 23,782 reporting knowledge of Ainu). https://courier.unesco.org/en/articles/saga-ainu-language
"The Warcraft Encyclopedia: Darnassian," via Wowpedia — Blizzard's official encyclopedia text on the language, its daughter languages (Nazja, Thalassian) and the offense taken at cross-language comparison. https://wowpedia.fandom.com/wiki/Darnassian
"The Warcraft Encyclopedia/Thalassian," Wowpedia — Blizzard's official encyclopedia text: Thalassian's descent from Darnassian and the social risk of mixing the two languages. https://wowpedia.fandom.com/wiki/The_Warcraft_Encyclopedia/Thalassian
“Tlingit language,” Wikipedia, on its Na-Dene classification, James Crippen’s 2019 estimate of 100–200 native speakers (youngest over sixty), the large consonant inventory with ejectives and uvulars, tone, and the polysynthetic, templatic verb. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_language
„Torlakian dialects“, Wikipedia (engleski) — prelazni južnoslovenski govori; srpska klasifikacija (prizrensko-timočki, Ivić) naspram bugarske (zapadnobugarski prelazni) i makedonske; UNESCO „ranjiv“; balkanizmi (gubitak padeža i infinitiva, po- komparativ, postpozitivni član, gubitak tonova i dužina, ə za poluglase, očuvano finalno -l); tabela vlk/slza/žlt po govorima; Krašovani, Goranci, Janjevci; Vukova definicija Torlaka; rukopis iz Temske 1762; etimologija imena. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torlakian_dialects
“Tower of Babel in Esperanto” (Genesis 11:1–9), Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026. Zamenhof's public-domain Bible translation, used for the §20 graded reading. https://www.omniglot.com/babel/esperanto.htm
“Tower of Babel in Ido” (Genesis 11:1–9), Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026. Public-domain reading passage rendered into Ido, used for the §14 graded reading. https://www.omniglot.com/babel/ido.htm
"Tswana language." Wikipedia (accessed 2026-07-18) — speaker figures (≈4.1M L1 South Africa 2011; ≈1.1M Botswana 1993; ≈2.7M L2 2002), distribution (North West Province >70%), Sepitori, phoneme tables, click interjections, penultimate stress, two-tone system with minimal pairs and spreading. Caution-tier tertiary source used for its page-cited paraphrase of Cole 1955 and University of Botswana 2001. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tswana_language
"Turkmen language," Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-language
"Unifon." Wikipedia — Malone's biography and the 40 'most important sounds' framing, the Chicago/Indianapolis testing and the absence of any published statistical analysis, the Ratz 'training wheels' quotation and the ABC-TV programme, the Today Show and Kuralt segments, the 1981 handover to Culkin, unifon.org's founding by Katzenmaier with Steve Bett, Parsons's Native American adaptations and their abandonment (citing Hinton's Green Book chapter), the ConScript U+E740–U+E76F allocation and fonts, and the IANA `unifon` variant subtag limited to en, hup, kyh, tol, yur. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unifon
"Utopian for Beginners" — The New Yorker (Joshua Foer, 2012). The landmark article that brought Ithkuil to wide public attention. Excellent cultural and biographical background. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/24/utopian-for-beginners
"Večernji list." Wikipedia. Accessed August 4, 2026. Croatian and Bosnian-Herzegovinian daily published in Zagreb and Mostar; one of the three leading Croatian newspapers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%8Dernji_list
“Welsh language, alphabet and pronunciation,” Omniglot — Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; the 29-letter alphabet and digraphs (ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, rh, th); pronunciation of ll, dd, ch, rh; VSO word order; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/welsh.htm
“Welsh language,” Wikipedia — history, Brittonic family relationships, grammar (VSO, gender, mutations, periphrastic verbs with bod), dialect divide, literature, and official status in Wales; worldwide speaker estimate incl. Y Wladfa (Patagonia). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language
“Wymysorys language,” Wikipedia, on its derivation from twelfth-century Middle High German with heavy Polish influence, its standing as possibly the most endangered Germanic language with fewer than twenty mostly elderly native speakers, and the post-1945 prohibition that broke transmission. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wymysorys_language
“Yeniseian languages,” Wikipedia, on the family, Edward Vajda’s Dene-Yeniseian hypothesis linking Yeniseian to the Na-Dene languages of North America, and the position-class complexity of the Ket verb (cf. Stefan Georg, A Descriptive Grammar of Ket, 2007). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeniseian_languages
“Yuchi language,” Wikipedia — Yuchi/Euchee (endonym Tsohaya) as a language isolate of Oklahoma; removal history; speaker decline and the death of last fluent first-language elder Maxine Wildcat Barnett on 27 August 2021; ~12 second-language speakers (2016); the Crawford–George orthography (1970s). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuchi_language
“Yurok language,” Wikipedia, on its Algic classification (with Wiyot, the western outliers of the family), its severely endangered status with only a handful of elderly first-language speakers, and its numeral-classifier counting system. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurok_language
"Zarma language." Wikipedia (accessed 2026-07-18) — grammar sketch based on Hamani (1980/1982) and Tersis (1972/1981): phoneme tables, four-tone system, SOV order, noun-form enclitics, aspect-marker table, copular system, ka-linkage, derivational suffixes, orthography and Ajami tables, attested proverb, UDHR Art. 1 sample (via Omniglot), and example sentences. Reliability: caution-tier tertiary source, used for its page-cited paraphrase of the primary grammars. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarma_language
« A Cajun French–English Glossary », Louisiana State University, Department of French Studies (lsu.edu, consulté le 2026-06-27 lors de la vérification initiale, revalidé le 2026-07-02) — salutations et formules (Comment ça va, cher ? ; Comment les affaires ? ; Quoi c'est ton nom ?). Confiance : élevée (recoupé avec [3]). https://www.lsu.edu/hss/french/undergraduate_program/cajun_french/cajun_french_english_glossary.php
« Champenois language », Wikipédia (anglais) — lou champaignat, aire (Champagne, Île-de-France/Seine-et-Marne, Vresse-sur-Semois en Belgique), langue régionale de France et statut reconnu en Wallonie, UNESCO (langue en danger), traits champenois chez Chrétien de Troyes et Rashi, première littérature fin XVIe s., Le Bontemps de Carnaval de Chaumont (rééd. 1660), noëls du XVIIIe siècle, bibliographie (Tarbé 1851, Paroles d'Oïl). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champenois_language
« Congolismes : quand les bouchards philosophent », Jeune Afrique (2012) : relevé lexical du français parlé en République du Congo (Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire), avec les gloses reprises ici. Source journalistique, à traiter en niveau de prudence modéré. https://www.jeuneafrique.com/140278/culture/congolismes-quand-les-bouchards-philosophent/
« Gallo language », Wikipédia (anglais) — aire du gallo en Haute-Bretagne et frontière Plouha–Pénerf, statut discuté (langue d'oïl / « patois », IETF fr-gallo, pas de code ISO), reconnaissance « langue de Bretagne » (2004), UNESCO « severely endangered », estimations de locuteurs (29 060 en 1999 à ~200 000, 132 000 en 2024), étymologie bretonne de « gallo » et terme « britto-roman » (Raude), anet/anui, infinitif en [ə], ouézè/gaziao, bllë, démonstratifs régionaux, pronoms je/il face au poitevin i/le. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo_language
« Gascon dialect », Wikipèdia (anglés) — lo gascon coma varietat de l'occitan e lo debat sus son estatut, retirament del còdi ISO [gsc] dins [oci], substrat basc (hèsta, huec, hemna; vocala protetica; sistèma enonciatiu que/e/be/ja), taula « Qu'i va / Que i va / I va », tres ensembles dialectals, aranés cooficial (estatut de 2006), UNESCO « definitely endangered », ~250 000 locutors (ELP 2011), enquèsta de Bearn 1982. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gascon_dialect
« How to count in Lingala », Of Languages and Numbers (consulté le 2026-07-04) — numéraux 1–10 (moko…zomi), dizaines (tuku), nkama (100), nkoto (1000). Fiabilité : moyenne–élevée. https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-lingala/en/lin/
« Joual », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — contractions attestées (tsé, faque, chus, d'la, su'l, s'a, y, a, ouin, drette là, Grouille-toé, pantoute, icitte, astheure, frette, moé, toé), particule interrogative « -tu » < « t-il » du XIIIᵉ siècle (sourcé sur le CCDMD/Correspondance et L'actualité), moé/toé comme prononciations de l'Ancien Régime (Picard 1974, Wittmann 1997), origines non anglaises de pogner et pitoune (occitan pichona), anglicismes d'usine (bécosse, chequer, domper, toffer), Michel Tremblay et Les Belles-sœurs (1968, Théâtre du Rideau Vert ; accueil parisien de 1973). Confiance : élevée sur les points doublement sourcés, moyenne sinon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joual
« Les particularités de la langue française parlée à Brazzaville » : description des traits lexicaux et d'usage du français brazzavillois. https://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/francong.html
« Lingala (lin) », Ethnologue, 27e éd. (2024) — statut officiel, nombre et répartition des locuteurs L1/L2. Base de données linguistique de référence. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lin/
« Louisiana French », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — histoire et statut (CODOFIL, ~150 000–200 000 locuteurs), phonologie (r apical, affrication en Évangéline, réduction des groupes, /ʒ/→[h] à Terrebonne/Lafourche), paradigme de « manger » (vous-autres mange, ils mangeont, être après/apé + inf.), non-contraction de le/de les, tableau lexical (char, chaoui, chevrette, soulier, piastre, galette, bougre, rat de bois, du train, drette-là, àyoù, quoi faire, guetter), emprunts amérindiens (bayou, pacane, plaquemine, choupique, latanier, patassa), toponymes (en ville, les Natchitoches), médias contemporains (Télé-Louisiane, LaCréole, Le Bourdon de la Louisiane, Kirby Jambon, Ashlee Michot). L'article s'appuie notamment sur Valdman 2010, Klingler et Blyth 1997. Confiance : élevée pour les items recoupés avec [3]/[4], moyenne pour les items attestés dans ce seul article. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French
« Provençal dialect », Wikipèdia (anglés) — lo provençau coma varietat de l'occitan, retirament del còdi ISO [prv] dins [oci] en 2007, sosdialèctes (rodanenc, maritim, niçard, gavòt), taula de comparason de las nòrmas mistralenca e classica, Mistral / Felibritge / Lafont e l'istòria del tèrme. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect
« Quebec French lexicon », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — canadianismes de bon aloi et rôle de l'OQLF (sourcé sur Oakes & Warren 2007, Language, Citizenship and Identity in Quebec, Palgrave Macmillan), archaïsmes (barrer, espérer, breuvage, piastre, couple féminin), tableau lexical (banc de neige, débarbouillette, dépanneur, fin de semaine, magasiner, souffleuse, traversier, tuque, bleuets, poudrerie), anglicismes intégrés (chum, checker, domper, toffer, toune) et purismes (courriel, stationnement), possessif en « à », litotes (pas pire, pas laid), idiotismes (J'ai mon voyage, C'est de valeur, Il fait frette, Tirer le diable par la queue, Se faire passer un sapin, Avoir l'estomac dans les talons, Chanter la pomme, Habillé comme la chienne à Jacques), repas (déjeuner/dîner/souper), bienvenue et bonne journée. Confiance : élevée pour les items recoupés avec [3]/[4], moyenne pour les items attestés dans ce seul article. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_French_lexicon
« Quebec French profanity », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-03 — liste des sacres (tabarnak, câlice, crisse, ostie/esti, maudit, ciboire, sacrament, viarge) et de leurs euphémismes (tabarnouche/tabarouette, câline, crime/cristie, maudine/mautadit, 'sti/titi, cibolle), dérivés grammaticaux (crisser/sacrer son camp, décâlisser, en tabarnak, j'm'en câlice, sacrament adverbial, crisser une volée), douceur relative de « fucké » ; l'article s'appuie notamment sur Nosowitz 2016 (Atlas Obscura) et Pichette 1980 (Le guide raisonné des jurons). Confiance : élevée pour les formes principales, moyenne pour les variantes rares. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_French_profanity
« Useful phrases in Lingala » et « Lingala (Lingála) », Omniglot (consulté le 2026-07-04) — salutations, phrases quotidiennes, alphabet et échantillon de texte. Fiabilité : moyenne–élevée. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/lingala.htm
«20 Ukrainian Idioms, Proverbs, and Expressions», Ukrainian Lessons (truy cập 2026-07-03) — tục ngữ và thành ngữ Ukraine kèm ví dụ. Độ tin cậy: trung bình. https://www.ukrainianlessons.com/20-ukrainian-idioms-proverbs-and-expressions/
«A New Look at Forms of Address in the Spanish of Cali, Colombia», Hispanic Studies Review: sistema tripartito vos/tú/usted, frecuencias de la encuesta (vos 40,2 %, usted 39,7 %, tú 20,1 %, su merced 0,1 %) y datos de percepción (86 % identifica el voseo como rasgo caleño; 69 % el pronombre vos frente al 17 % de la morfología verbal). https://hispanicstudiesreview.cofc.edu/article/34078-a-new-look-at-forms-of-address-in-the-spanish-of-cali-colombia/attachment/86701.pdf
«Arabic», Wikipedia (2026-07-03-এ দেখা) — ك-ت-ب মূল থেকে সাধিত পূর্ণ শব্দ-তালিকা (katabtu, kattabtu, kātabtu, ʼaktabtu, iktatabtu, takātabnā, ʼaktubu, kutiba, maktūb, kitāb, kutub, kātib, kuttāb, maktab, maktaba) এবং -tu অতীত-প্রত্যয়ের উদাহরণ (qaraʼtu, akaltu, dhahabtu, sharibtu, qultu, takallamtu); সাহিত্যিক আরবির ৩ কারক (-u/-a/-i), ৩ বচন (দ্বিবচনসহ), ২ লিঙ্গ (স্ত্রীলিঙ্গ ـة), ৩ অবস্থা (অনির্দিষ্ট/নির্দিষ্ট/সংযুক্ত), সুস্থ ও ভাঙা বহুবচন; MSA-র ২৮ ব্যঞ্জন/৬ স্বর, ভারী-দন্তমূলীয়-গলার ধ্বনির আন্তর্ভাষিক বিরলতা, দৈর্ঘ্যের ধ্বনিমূলকতা; উপভাষা-গুচ্ছ ও বক্তাসংখ্যা (মিশরীয় ৬.৭ কোটি, লেভান্তীয় ~৪.৪ কোটি, মাগরেবি ~৭ কোটি, মেসোপটেমীয় ~৪.১২ কোটি, সুদানি ১.৭ কোটি), মিশরীয়র বোধ্যতা বনাম মরক্কোর দারিজা, MSA-র ভূমিকা; মাল্টিজের স্বতন্ত্রতা। বিশ্বাসযোগ্যতা: উচ্চ। https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic
«Bengali language», Wikipedia (2026-07-03-এ দেখা) — শব্দভান্ডারের উৎস-অনুপাত (তৎসম ৪০%, তদ্ভব ১৬%, দেশি ১৬%, বিদেশি ২৮%), ফারসির ৬০০ বছরের দাপ্তরিক মর্যাদা (১৮৩৬ পর্যন্ত) ও দোভাষী রেজিস্টার; মুসলিম/হিন্দু রেজিস্টার-তালিকা (আসসালামু আলাইকুম، দাওয়াত<دعوة، গোসল<غسل، খালা<خالة، দোয়া<دعاء); ব্যাকরণ: ৪ কারক, বাধ্যতামূলক পরিমাপ-শব্দ (-টা/-জন), নির্দিষ্টতা-প্রত্যয় -টা/-গুলো, ব্যাকরণিক লিঙ্গের অনুপস্থিতি, বর্তমান কালে শূন্য কপুলা; ধ্বনিতত্ত্ব: CVC-প্রবণতা ও গুচ্ছ-ভাঙা (গ্রাম→গেরাম, স্কুল→ইস্কুল)। বিশ্বাসযোগ্যতা: উচ্চ। https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language
«Category:Swahili terms derived from Portuguese», Wiktionary (acedido em 2026-07-04), e A. Ricard / estudos sobre empréstimos — meza (<mesa), pesa (<peso), gereza (<igreja; mudança semântica igreja→fortaleza-prisão), bendera (<bandeira), leso (<lenço), mvinyo (<vinho). Fiabilidade: média–alta. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Swahili_terms_derived_from_Portuguese
«Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos — Umbundu», OHCHR (Alto Comissariado das Nações Unidas para os Direitos Humanos; acedido em 2026-07-03) — texto paralelo do Artigo 1.º em Umbundu. Fonte primária. https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/umbundu
«Dutch language», Wikipedia (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — grammaticale gelijkenis Nederlands–Duits (zinsbouw en werkwoordsmorfologie), naamvalsverlies (beperkt tot voornaamwoorden en vaste uitdrukkingen; de datief over de accusatief veralgemeend: NL me/je tegenover DE mich/mir, dich/dir), de/het en de samenval van mannelijk/vrouwelijk tot een gemeenschappelijk geslacht, werkwoordklassen (±60% zwak; zeven sterke klassen met o.a. breken/brak/gebroken, geven/gaf/gegeven, dragen/droeg/gedragen), en de Hoogduitse klankverschuiving als scheidslijn tussen het Hoogduits en de Nederfrankische dialecten. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language
«Español colombiano» — panorámica en español, empleada como contraste con la fuente anterior para la excepción pastusa y la distribución del voseo. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ol_colombiano
«False friends in German and Dutch language», Taalhuis Amsterdam (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — wie (NL 'wie' / DE 'hoe'), varen tegenover fahren ('rijden'), tuin tegenover Zaun ('hek'), tafel tegenover Tafel ('schoolbord'). https://taalhuisamsterdam.nl/false-friends-dutch-german-speaker-language-traps/
«False friends: Dutch and German», Learndutch.org (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — de omkering zee/meer ↔ Meer/See en bellen (NL 'opbellen') tegenover Duits bellen ('blaffen'). https://www.learndutch.org/beginners/false-friends-dutch-and-german/
«German language», Wikipedia (consultat 2026-07-03) — declinarea articolului hotărât (der/die/das pe patru cazuri; 16 combinații, 6 forme), cele trei genuri și sufixele-semnal (-ung/-schaft/-keit/-heit feminine, -chen/-lein neutre, -ismus masculine), declinarea substantivului (șapte terminații; genitiv -s/-es la masculine/neutre tari; femininele nedeclinate la singular; dativul plural marcat), sistemul verbal (slab/tare/mixt; prezent și preterit simple, patru timpuri compuse; indicativ/imperativ/conjunctiv; conjunctivul ca purtător al vorbirii indirecte și, cu preteritul, al condiționalului; pasivul de stare cu sein vs. de acțiune cu werden), compusele (Hundehütte, Baumhaus, Rindfleisch…gesetz și percepția lui stilistică), majuscula substantivelor (cu paralela istorică: daneza până în 1948, engleza până în anii 1700; păstrată azi de germană, luxemburgheză și dialecte nord-frizone), ß→SS (Maßband/MASSBAND; KREßLEIN), majuscula ẞ adoptată în 2017, reforma din 1996, transcrierea ae/oe/ue/ss, Fraktur și s lung (Wachſtube/Wachstube), ghilimelele „…“. Încredere: înaltă. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language
«German sentence structure», Wikipedia (consultat 2026-07-03) — regula V2 în principale (Ich sehe den Baum / Den Baum sehe ich), verbul pe locul 1 în întrebările da/nu (Siehst du den Baum?), verbul final în subordonate (Ich weiß, dass Erna hier ist), verbele separabile și formele nefinite la sfârșit (Der König kam an der Burg an / ist … angekommen), conectorii care păstrează V2 (und, oder, aber, sondern, doch, jedoch, denn) și flexibilitatea «câmpului median»; de aici provin și glosele vocabularului de bază din §7 (sehen, gehen, wissen, helfen, mögen, vergessen, bringen, geben, machen; Baum, Fluss, König, Kaiser, Burg, Buch, Salz, Hemd, Kino, Regen, Landhaus, Eltern). Încredere: înaltă. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_sentence_structure
«Japanese language», Wikipedia (diakses 2026-07-03) — urutan kata SOV dengan satu aturan kaku (verba di akhir) dan partikel/posposisi penanda fungsi (wa topik; ga subjek: Kare ga yatta; o objek: Nani o tabemasu ka; ni datif/arah: Tanaka-san ni agete kudasai, Nihon ni ikitai; e arah: pātī e ikanai ka; no genitif: watashi no kamera; wa menimpa ga/o: Watashi wa sushi ga ii desu), struktur topik–komentar dan sifat menonjolkan-topik (Tanaka-san wa…), kopula da→desu sebagai kesopanan, pelesapan subjek/objek (Yatta!), kata benda tanpa jumlah/gender/kata sandang (hon, hito, ki) dengan kata penggolong, reduplikasi hitobito 人々 dan sufiks kolektif -tachi ('dan rombongan'), kata ganti (watashi/boku/ore; anata vs gelar sensei; asal-usul nominal boku 'pelayan', kimi 'tuan'; Odoroita kare wa…), konjugasi dua tempus + -te iru (tabete iru vs kite iru), negasi taberu→tabenai→tabenakatta, kalimat tanya dengan -ka/-no/intonasi (ii desu ka; O-namae wa?), keigo (teineigo/sonkeigo/kenjōgo; iku→ikimasu/irassharu/ukagau/mairu; uchi–soto; oshiete moratta/ageta), fonotaktik (C)(G)V(C) dengan moraik ん yang berasimilasi, aksen titinada (hashi 'sumpit'/'jembatan'; bukan bahasa nada), serta tiga aksara (kanji + hiragana/katakana; sejarah hiragana abad ke-9–10; jōyō kanji sebagai kompromi pascaperang; kanji diajarkan sejak SD kelas 1). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language
«Kiswahili Lesson 2 — Greetings» e «Lesson 49 — Negation», Kansas African Studies Center / University of Kansas Kiswahili (acedido em 2026-07-04) — saudações e formação da negação. Fiabilidade: alta (material universitário). https://kiswahili.ku.edu/sites/kiswahili/files/documents/lessons/lesson_02.pdf
«Korean grammar», Wikipedia (2026-07-03 को देखा गया) — कणों (조사/josa) की भूमिकाएँ: 이/가 कर्ता (आदरणीय कर्ता 께서), 을/를 कर्म, 은/는 विषय, 의 संबंध, 에 अधिकरण, 에서 «पर/से», 에게/한테/께 संप्रदान, 와/과 सहचर, (으)로 साधन/दिशा; जोड़क 이다/아니다; अस्तित्व-क्रियाएँ 있다/없다 और आदररूप 계시다; नकार की तीन विधियाँ (안, 못, -지 말다); सर्वनाम 나/저, दूसरे व्यक्ति के सर्वनाम से परहेज़, 그+संज्ञा; वैकल्पिक बहुवचन 들 (सेब-उदाहरण सहित); वर्णनात्मक क्रियाएँ (예쁘다); वाणी-स्तरों के प्रश्न/आज्ञा/सुझाव/विस्मय अंत (-ㅂ/습니까, -아/어요, -(으)세요…); परोक्ष कथन के अंत (-다고 आदि); बड़ी संख्याओं का दस-हज़ार समूहन। विश्वसनीयता: उच्च। https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_grammar
«Korean language», Wikipedia (2026-07-03 को देखा गया) — लगभग 8.1 करोड़ मातृभाषी; hangugeo/chosŏnŏ नाम; हांल्यू का वैश्विक प्रसार (21वीं सदी से); अमेरिकी रक्षा विभाग की कठिनाई-रैंकिंग (अंग्रेज़ीभाषियों के लिए); SOV — क्रिया एकमात्र अनिवार्य/अचल तत्व, शेष क्रम लचीला; agglutinative; कण-रूपांतरण (은/는, 이/가, 을/를, 와/과, 으로/로) और उदाहरण 가게에 가셨어요?; honorifics बनाम सात वाणी-स्तर, jondaenmal/banmal, युवा पीढ़ी का बदलता प्रयोग; चीनी-कोरियाई शब्द-परत (अनुमान 30–65%) और water–aqua तुलना; दोनों संख्या-प्रणालियों की 1–10 तालिका; व्याकरणिक लिंग का अभाव (그/그녀); हंगुल — सेजोंग महान, Hunminjeongeum, eonmun, yangban का विरोध, 16वीं सदी की हंगुल-घोषणाएँ, काबो सुधार 1894, 24 jamo + 27 संयुक्त, अक्षर-खंड (비빔밥), शब्दों के बीच रिक्त स्थान; व्यंजन/स्वर-तालिकाएँ (RR); कड़ी/महाप्राण शृंखलाएँ; सोल/प्योंगयांग मानक; King Sejong Institute (एशिया में 146) और TOPIK। विश्वसनीयता: उच्च। https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language
«Methali» (provérbios suaíli) — «Haba na haba hujaza kibaba»; provérbio tradicional documentado em coletâneas de methali za Kiswahili. Fiabilidade: média. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_proverbs
«Numbers in Swahili» e «Swahili (Kiswahili)», Omniglot (acedido em 2026-07-04) — numerais cardinais, alfabeto e frases úteis; origem árabe de sita/saba/tisa. Fiabilidade: média–alta. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/swahili.htm
«Numbers in Umbundu» e «Umbundu (Úmbúndú)», Omniglot (acedido em 2026-07-03) — numerais cardinais 1–1000, alfabeto e amostra de texto. Fiabilidade: média–alta. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/umbundu.htm
«Romanian language», Wikipedia (consultat 2026-07-03) — împrumuturile germane din română (cartof<Kartoffel, bere<Bier, șurub<Schraube, turn<Turm, ramă<Rahmen, șnițel<Schnitzel, șuncă<Schunke/Schinken, punct<Punkt, maistru<Meister, rundă<Runde, șpriț<Spritzer, abțibild<Abziehbild, șvaițer<Schweizer, bormașină<Bohrmaschine; strat tehnic: șină<Schiene, știft<Stift, șaibă<Scheibe, ștangă<Stange, țiglă<Ziegel, șindrilă<Schindel, ștanță<Stanze, șmirghel<Schmirgelpapier, liță<Litze) și contextul habsburgic (Banat, Transilvania, Bucovina; domenii militar/administrativ/social/economic); statistica Sala 1988 (2,47% germană); articolul hotărât enclitic (singura limbă romanică majoră; paralelă cu scandinava, bulgara, albaneza); sincretismul genitiv-dativ și celelalte trăsături balcanice; cazurile substantivului (nominativ/acuzativ, genitiv/dativ, vocativ); cele trei genuri; ordinea SVO; verbul (patru conjugări, cinci moduri); alfabetul cu ă â î ș ț; ghilimelele „…” și «…»; lunile/zilele fără majusculă (ianuarie, joi; Germania/german). Încredere: înaltă. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_language
«Swahili grammar», Wikipédia (acedido em 2026-07-04) — prefixos de sujeito, marcadores de tempo (-na-, -li-, -ta-, -me-), negação (si-…-i; monossilábicos perdem ku-, dando sili), classes nominais. Fiabilidade: alta. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_grammar
«Swahili language», Wikipédia (acedido em 2026-07-04) — estatuto e número de falantes (>200 M), classificação banto (grupo G de Guthrie), empréstimos árabes, união africana, contexto histórico do Oceano Índico. Fiabilidade: alta. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_language
«Turkish (Türkçe)» và «Numbers in Turkish», Omniglot (truy cập 2026-07-04) — bảng chữ cái, số đếm, cụm từ hữu ích. Độ tin cậy: trung bình–cao. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/turkish.htm
«Turkish grammar», Wikipedia (truy cập 2026-07-04) — trật tự SOV, hòa âm nguyên âm, 6 cách (hậu tố -i/-e/-de/-den/-in), thì hiện tại tiếp diễn -yor. Độ tin cậy: cao. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_grammar
«Turkish language», Wikipedia (truy cập 2026-07-04) — ngữ hệ Turk, ~85 triệu người nói, cải cách chữ Latin 1928 (Atatürk), đặc điểm chắp dính. Độ tin cậy: cao. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language
«Ukrainian (ukr)», Ethnologue (truy cập 2026-07-03) — hồ sơ ngôn ngữ, tình trạng chính thức và số người nói L1/L2. Cơ sở dữ liệu ngôn ngữ học tham khảo. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ukr/
«Ukrainian (Українська)», Omniglot (truy cập 2026-07-03) — ước tính ~45 triệu người nói toàn cầu, họ ngôn ngữ, chữ Cyrillic, mẫu văn bản; danh sách cụm từ hữu ích. Độ tin cậy: trung bình–cao. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/ukrainian.htm
«Ukrainian alphabet», Wikipedia (truy cập 2026-07-03) — 33 chữ cái (21 phụ âm, 10 nguyên âm, 1 bán nguyên âm, 1 dấu mềm), bốn chữ đặc trưng є/і/ї/ґ, giá trị âm, trọng âm không cố định và không đánh dấu. Độ tin cậy: cao. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_alphabet
«Ukrainian grammar», Wikipedia (truy cập 2026-07-03) — hệ thống 7 cách, lược bỏ hệ từ бути ở thì hiện tại, quy tắc danh từ sau số đếm (2–4 vs 5+), biến cách danh từ giống cái. Độ tin cậy: cao. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar
«Ukrainian language», Wikipedia (truy cập 2026-07-03) — phân loại Slav Đông, số người nói (~40 triệu), quan hệ gần gũi với tiếng Belarus, vai trò của ngôn ngữ trong bản sắc dân tộc; bối cảnh văn hóa (Shevchenko, borscht, vyshyvanka). Độ tin cậy: cao. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language
«Umbundu», Wikipédia (acedido em 2026-07-03) — língua bantu (Zona R, Guthrie R.11), ~7 milhões de falantes (2018), povo Ovimbundu (~1/3 de Angola), Planalto Central e costa (Benguela, Lobito), autónimo Úmbúndú; inventário fonológico e dois tons. Fiabilidade: alta. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbundu
«Useful Japanese phrases», Omniglot (diakses 2026-07-03) — tabel salam (ohayō gozaimasu, konnichiwa, konbanwa, oyasumi nasai, sayōnara, arigatō (gozaimasu), sumimasen, gomen nasai, hajimemashite, o-genki desu ka), moshi moshi dengan catatan etimologisnya (bentuk merendah 'berkata', zaman Edo), dan pasangan itadakimasu / gochisōsama deshita. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/japanese.php
«Useful Korean phrases», Omniglot (2026-07-03 को देखा गया) — §7 की पूरी अभिवादन/वाक्यांश-तालिका: 환영합니다, 안녕하세요/안녕하십니까, 여보세요, 어떻게 지내세요, 잘지내요, 오랜만이다, 제 이름은 … 입니다, 만나서 반갑습니다, 안녕히 주무십시요, 안녕히 가세요/계세요 (जाने/रुकने वाले का भेद), 행운을 빌어요, 건배, 좋은 하루 되세요, 잘 먹겠습니다/잘 먹었습니다, 네/예, 아니요, 아마도, 모르겠습니다, 천천히 말씀해 주세요, 실례합니다, 이게 얼마예요, 미안합니다, 부탁합니다, 감사합니다/고맙습니다, 아니에요, 화장실이 어디예요, 사랑해, 축하해요, 생일 축하합니다 — औपचारिक/अनौपचारिक लेबल सहित। एकल-स्रोत सूची होने से यह तालिका उसी पृष्ठ तक सीमित रखी गई है। विश्वसनीयता: उच्च (रूप निर्विवाद, अभिलेखीय ऑडियो सहित)। https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/korean.php
«Useful phrases in Umbundu» / lições de Umbundu, Nação Ovimbundu (via Omniglot; acedido em 2026-07-03) — saudações e fórmulas de cortesia. Fiabilidade: média. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/umbundu.htm
«Verb Aspect in Ukrainian: Differences Between Imperfective and Perfective», Ukrainian Lessons (truy cập 2026-07-03) — cặp thể chưa hoàn thành/hoàn thành, tạo thể hoàn thành bằng tiền tố (писати → написати), thể hoàn thành không dùng ở hiện tại. Độ tin cậy: trung bình–cao. https://www.ukrainianlessons.com/verb-aspect-in-ukrainian-differences/
«Аӄта дасӄавет» nonprofit Ket-language portal — dictionary interface and audio recordings. RESEARCH/Ket/culture-and-community-context.md, direct-read 2026-07-17.
「Shanghainese language and pronunciation」，Omniglot（2026-07-04 查阅）——罗马化方案（吴语协会拼音、吴语学堂/Wugniu）、常用语与样文。可信度：中高。 https://www.omniglot.com/chinese/shanghainese.htm
「Shanghainese」，维基百科（2026-07-04 查阅）——上海话（吴语太湖片）概况、人称代词（吾/侬/伊/阿拉/㑚/伊拉）、否定「勿」、疑问助词「𠲎」、连读变调、社会语言状况；引 Zhu (2006)、Hashimoto (1971)、Chao (1967)。可信度：高。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghainese
@cijapanese. Canal de inmersión comprensible en japonés puro: desde el nivel más básico hasta el avanzado, sin traducción, con apoyo visual y de escritura. Método similar al Dreaming Spanish, muy eficaz para desarrollar la comprensión auditiva. @cijapanese https://www.youtube.com/@cijapanese
@EasyGerman. Interviste per strada con sottotitoli in tedesco e inglese. Tedesco reale e colloquiale, ideale dal livello A2 in poi. @EasyGerman https://www.youtube.com/@EasyGerman
@FrancaisAuthentique. Canal de Johan Tekfak con francés natural, anécdotas cotidianas y explicaciones sobre el uso real del idioma. Ideal a partir del A2–B1. @FrancaisAuthentique https://www.youtube.com/@FrancaisAuthentique
@GermanwithJenny. Lezioni strutturate di grammatica e vocabolario in inglese, chiare e ben organizzate. Utile per approfondire regole specifiche come i casi o il Konjunktiv II. @GermanwithJenny https://www.youtube.com/@GermanwithJenny
@innerFrench. Hugo Cotton parla di temi culturali e di attualità in francese naturale ma accessibile. Ideale dal livello B1 in su. @innerFrench https://www.youtube.com/@innerFrench
18 Steps to Fluency in Euro-Glosa: The Interlanguage for Europe and the World, 3rd ed. — Glosa's analytic design, the a posteriori Greek/Latin lexicon, the u/plu noun markers, the preverbal tense particles nu/pa/fu/du, the ne vs no- distinction, and the sentence examples Mi grafo poesi, Mi fu lekto u bibli, Mi pa visita u teatra, Mi gene sko de Glosa, and Place/Gratia/Penite. https://glosa.fias.fr/glosa/en/g18s
3Cat (TV3 / Catalunya Radio). Radio e TV pubblica catalana in streaming: notizie, serie, podcast. https://www.3cat.cat/
A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (Burrow & Emeneau). The scholarly etymological dictionary of the Dravidian family, hosted by the University of Chicago. https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/
A Few Things About Somali — Morgan Nilsson (PDF). A free, clearly written introduction to Somali structure and pronunciation — an excellent starting point. https://morgannilsson.se/AFewThingsAboutSomali.pdf
A Grammar of Paraguayan Guarani (UCL Press, acesso aberto). Gramática acadêmica completa e gratuita (Estigarribia, 2020). https://www.uclpress.co.uk/products/119274
A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language (New Ithkuil, 2023). The definitive grammar of the current version, covering all morphological categories in detail. https://ithkuil.net/newithkuil.htm
A magyar nyelv nemet jovevenyszavairol (kb. 400 szo, foleg a Habsburg-kortol), vo. a magyar nyelvtorteneti szakirodalom; 'Germanism (linguistics)'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanism_(linguistics)
A Manchu Grammar (von Möllendorff, 1892) — full text. the classic romanized grammar, free https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Manchu_Grammar
Academia Colombiana de la Lengua. Founded 1871 — the first Spanish language academy after the RAE; member of ASALE https://www.academiacolombiana.net/
Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua. Cusco-based language academy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia_Mayor_de_la_Lengua_Quechua
Academia Mexicana de la Lengua, ‘Quiénes somos,’ accessed 2026-08-04. https://www.academia.org.mx/la-academia/quienes-somos
Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Mexican academic reference route. https://www.academia.org.mx/
Academia Romana - DOOM. L'autorita normativa: il dizionario ortografico ufficiale (DOOM). https://academiaromana.ro/
Académie de Rennes. "Enseignement du breton et du gallo dans l'académie." Accessed July 17, 2026. For 2025–2026: 9,212 pupils in public primary schools, 3,285 middle-school pupils, 292 high-school pupils in bilingual and optional Breton provision. Date-specific administrative figures covering the public academy only; they exclude Diwan immersion schools, Catholic bilingual streams and adult courses. https://www.ac-rennes.fr/enseignement-du-breton-et-du-gallo-dans-l-academie-124710
Académie des Langues Kanak — Drehu. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/drehu
Académie des Langues Kanak — Nengone. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/nengone
Académie des Langues Kanak — Paicî. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/paici
Accademia della Crusca. Autoritatea lingvistica a limbii italiene; raspunsuri la dubii de limba. https://accademiadellacrusca.it/
Adelaar, Willem F. H., with Pieter C. Muysken. The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. The regional survey underlying Glottolog's family-level treatment of Araucanian, and the basis for preferring 'small family with no known external relatives' over 'isolate'. Also the frame within which Huilliche is treated as a closely related variety rated separately for endangerment. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/languages-of-the-andes/6A39C0BE8CDA47F0C0E0C2F1AEA9F1F8
Afûk, Frisian education and publishing organisation, accessed 2026-07-26. https://afuk.frl/
Agência Brasil (EBC) reporting IBGE Censo Demográfico 2022 — Etnias e línguas indígenas. “Número de falantes de línguas indígenas aumenta quase 50% em 12 anos (24 October 2025).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for IBGE 2022 census figures: 295 indigenous languages spoken; 433,980 indigenous speakers of an indigenous language (age 5+); and 1,404,340 indigenous people (86.32%) using Portuguese at home — evidence of Portuguese dominance. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/direitos-humanos/noticia/2025-10/numero-de-falantes-de-linguas-indigenas-aumenta-quase-50-em-12-anos
Agência Brasil (Empresa Brasil de Comunicação, EBC — Brazilian public news agency). “Novo acordo ortográfico é obrigatório a partir de hoje no Brasil (1 January 2016).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Confirms the 1990 Agreement became obligatory in Brazil on 1 January 2016 after use since 2009; notes changes such as elimination of the trema and new hyphen/accent rules. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2016-01/novo-acordo-ortografico-e-obrigatorio-partir-de-hoje
Ager, Simon. “Numbers in Sundanese.” Omniglot. Accessed July 26, 2026. Compiled by Wolfgang Kuhl from Jonathan Rigg, A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java (Batavia: Lange & Co., 1862). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/sundanese.htm
Ager, Simon. "Useful Javanese phrases." Omniglot. Phrases contributed by Lucas Jalu Adi Laksita, given in both Kromo Inggil and Ngoko columns; Omniglot's under-dot notation for the /ɔ/ realisation of final -a has been normalised here to standard 2006 spelling. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/javanese.php
Ager, Simon. “Useful Phrases in Sundanese.” Omniglot. Accessed July 26, 2026. Phrases contributed by Jasaritin with corrections by Syauqi Ahmad and R. Rineta Ayu Selandia. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/sundanese.php
Ager, Simon. Omniglot: The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages. Structured phrase, number, colour and time tables; extracted per-page with source URLs retained in the collector dossier. https://www.omniglot.com/
Aisa / Ikasbil (HABE). curso introdutório gratuito e exercícios do organismo linguístico basco HABE https://www.ikasten.ikasbil.eus/
Akademi Kernewek / Cornish Language Office. official body & Standard Written Form https://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish-language
Akademio de Esperanto, official language academy. https://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/
Al Jazeera Learning Arabic. Sumber belajar bahasa Arab baku dari media Arab terkemuka. https://learning.aljazeera.net/
Al Jazeera. Authentic MSA input; pick a dialect channel for spoken practice. https://www.aljazeera.net/
Alan Howard and Jan Rensel, eds., "Rotuman Language," the Rotuma Website, University of Hawai'i — including Churchward's definiteness examples and Besnier's four-rule summary. https://www.hawaii.edu/oceanic/rotuma/os/Language.html
Alaska Native Language Center — Edward Vajda's Ket and Dene-Yeniseian materials. Preserves the leading specialist's published work on Ket grammar and the Dene-Yeniseian hypothesis, framed explicitly as ongoing research. https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/
Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks — Edward Vajda's Ket and Dene-Yeniseian materials, framed as an active comparative-linguistics hypothesis. RESEARCH/Ket/history-and-classification.md [K07], direct-read 2026-07-17.
Albert Wendt and other Samoan-language and Samoan-English literature. Pacific-focused booksellers stocking Samoan and Samoan-diaspora authors, a starting point for Samoan-authored reading beyond this guide. https://www.pacificbooks.co.nz/
Alexander & Elias-Bursać, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: A Textbook. 英语世界常用的 BCS 教材，含语法与练习。 https://uwapress.uw.edu/book/9780299236540/bosnian-croatian-serbian-a-textbook/
Alexander Andrason and Tymoteusz Król, A Grammar of Wymysorys (Durham, NC: Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center, Duke University, 2016), the open-access reference grammar of the language. https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/media_items_files/wymysorys-grammar.original.pdf
Alexander Gode and Hugh E. Blair, Interlingua: A Grammar of the International Language (New York: International Auxiliary Language Association, 1951), accessed July 4, 2026, https://archive.org/details/interlingua-grammar. The standard reference grammar: articles (le/un), plural -s/-es, invariable adjectives, the four simple tenses and compound auxiliaries, pronouns, questions with esque, negation with non, and the word-building affixes. https://archive.org/details/interlingua-grammar
alliance-francaise.jp. 世界130か国以上に展開する非営利フランス語教育機関。日本各地に教室があり、DELF/DALF 認定試験も受験できます。alliance-francaise.jp 全レベル https://www.alliance-francaise.jp/
alliancefrancaise.de. deutschsprachige Städte — Lokale Sprachzentren in zahlreichen deutschen, österreichischen und Schweizer Städten. Kurse, Konversationsrunden und offizielle DELF/DALF-Zertifizierungen (A1–C2). alliancefrancaise.de https://www.alliancefrancaise.de/
alliancefrancaise.fr. La red global de institutos de francés del gobierno francés. Tiene sedes en más de 130 países, incluidas decenas de ciudades de España y América Latina. Ofrece cursos presenciales y en línea, y las certificaciones oficiales DELF/DALF (A1–C2). alliancefrancaise.fr https://www.fondation-alliancefr.org/
alliancefrancaise.it. Centri in tutta Italia (Roma, Milano, Firenze, Bologna, Palermo e molte altre città) con corsi per tutti i livelli e certificazioni ufficiali. alliancefrancaise.it https://www.alliancefrancaise.it/
alliancefrancaise.pt. Centros em Lisboa, Porto e outras cidades com cursos para todos os níveis e certificações oficiais. alliancefrancaise.pt https://www.alliancefrancaise.pt/
Almaany (kamus daring). Kamus Arab dwibahasa yang lengkap. https://www.almaany.com/
Alphonse Matejka, "General frases por li conversation in interlingue," redacted by Thomas Schmidt, 2013, Interlingue Wiki (Fandom), accessed July 4, 2026, https://interlingue.fandom.com/es/wiki/General_frases_por_li_conversation_in_interlingue. Source of the attested greetings, health, introduction, weather, shopping, travel and directions phrases used in the A1–A2 bands. https://interlingue.fandom.com/es/wiki/General_frases_por_li_conversation_in_interlingue
Amanye Tenceli — Måns Björkman. The reference presentation of the script: letter names, mode classification, punctuation, calligraphy. Start with Modes. https://at.boktypografen.se/
Amharic overview. Background on the script, sounds and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amharic
Ancient Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language attested c. 3000 BCE onward through stages Old/Middle/Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic; its consonantal scripts (hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic) did not write vowels. See “Egyptian language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_language
Ancient Greek in Action (Leonard Muellner). video lecture series https://kosmossociety.chs.harvard.edu/introduction-to-greek/
Ancient Greek is the Hellenic Indo-European language of ancient Greece (Homeric, Classical/Attic, Koine and later stages), the medium of Greek literature, philosophy and the Greek New Testament, and the direct ancestor of Modern Greek. See “Ancient Greek.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek
Anderson, E. A. “The Use of Speech Levels in Sundanese.” In Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics No. 16, edited by M. Clark, 1–45. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 1997. The standard English-language analysis of the Sundanese register system. https://doi.org/10.15144/PL-A90.1
Anderson, Gregory D. S. Xakas. Languages of the World/Materials 251. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1998 — standard concise reference grammar (metadata-cited). https://search.worldcat.org/search?q=Anderson+Xakas+Lincom
Andras J. E. Bodrogligeti, An Academic Reference Grammar of Modern Literary Uzbek (Munich: LINCOM Europa, 2003), Introduction & Phonology. https://www.worldcat.org/title/academic-reference-grammar-of-modern-literary-uzbek/oclc/56124117
Andras Rona-Tas & Arpad Berta, West Old Turkic: Turkic Loanwords in Hungarian, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011) [Turcologica 84] - kb. 400-500 otorok jovevenyszo a magyarban. https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/
Andree Hartanto and Sujin Yang, "Disparate Bilingual Experiences Modulate Task-Switching Advantages: A Diffusion-Model Analysis of the Effects of Interactional Context on Switch Costs," Cognition 150 (2016): 10–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.016
Andreu Bosch i Rodoreda, 'L'algueres', in Manuel Alvar (dir.), Manual de dialectologia hispanica (Barcelona: Ariel, 1996); cfr. Institut d'Estudis Catalans, materiali sull'Alguer. https://www.iec.cat/
Andrew Garrett et al., the Yurok Language Project, University of California, Berkeley — an online dictionary with several thousand audio files, more than a hundred texts, and pedagogical tools, begun in 2001 by Garrett and Juliette Blevins. See also Garrett, “An Online Dictionary with Texts and Pedagogical Tools: The Yurok Language Project at Berkeley,” International Journal of Lexicography 24, no. 4 (2011): 405–419. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~yurok/
Andriyanti, Erna. “Language Shift among Javanese Youth and Their Perception of Local and National Identities.” GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 19, no. 3 (2019). A survey of 1,039 students in ten Yogyakarta schools. https://ejournals.ukm.my/gema/article/view/30990
Angela de Bruin and Ronan McGarrigle, "Dual-Tasking While Using Two Languages: Examining the Cognitive Resource Demands of Cued and Voluntary Language Production in Bilinguals," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 77, no. 3 (2024): 487–506, https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218231173638. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218231173638
Angela de Bruin, Liv J. Hoversten, and Clara D. Martin, "Interference between Non-Native Languages during Trilingual Language Production," Journal of Memory and Language 128 (2023): 104386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2022.104386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2022.104386
Anki. ($25, one-time purchase; iOS/Android/Windows/macOS) is the most effective memorization tool available, using the SM2 or FSRS algorithm. It is highly customizable & applicable to any subject requiring memorization. Before building decks, review the AnKing YouTube channel for guidance on note types, card styling, & settings. https://apps.ankiweb.net/
Anki. 스페이스드 리피티션(간격 반복) 방식의 플래시카드 앱. 격 변화표·명사 성·불규칙 동사를 외우는 데 최적입니다. 공유 덱을 무료로 다운로드할 수 있습니다. https://ankiweb.net/
Anne Therese Frederiksen and Judith F. Kroll, "Regulation and Control: What Bimodal Bilingualism Reveals about Learning and Juggling Two Languages," Languages 7, no. 3 (2022): 214, https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/7/3/214. https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/7/3/214
Aperçu de l'isiXhosa. Contexte sur les clics, les classes et l'orthographe. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_(langue)
Aperçu de l'isiZulu. Orientation sur les clics, les classes et l'orthographe. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoulou_(langue)
Aperçu du yorùbá. Présentation du ton, des voyelles et de la grammaire. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_(langue)
ARBRES — the CNRS research grammar of Breton. Edited by Mélanie Jouitteau at the IKER research unit. Technical, source-traced, and the right authority for any grammatical question. Cite individual topic pages. https://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/
ARD / ZDF (radio es televizio). Nemet kozszolgalati media: valodi nyelv hallgatashoz. https://www.ardmediathek.de/
Ardalambion — Helge Fauskanger's Quenya course. Long-running site with a full Quenya grammar course, one of the most thorough available in English. https://folk.uib.no/hnohf/
Ardalambion — Helge Fauskanger's Sindarin overview. Helge Fauskanger's grammar and overview of Sindarin; rigorous and well-sourced. https://folk.uib.no/hnohf/sindarin.htm
Arefiev, A. L. Yazyki korennykh malochislennykh narodov Severa, Sibiri i Dalnego Vostoka v sisteme obrazovaniya. Moscow: Tsentr sotsialnogo prognozirovaniya i marketinga, 2014. ISBN 978-5-906001-21-4. Census-derived speaker statistics, cited at pp. 50 and 97 for the 1989 figure of 1,079 and the 2010 figure of 198. Consulted via the in-repo dossier, which page-cites it. https://web.archive.org/web/20220202071835/https://www.5top100.ru/upload/iblock/312/3125b16cfed8d1a9d124bea5a35ec3c2.pdf
Armenian language portals. Nayiri hosts classic Armenian dictionaries online; indispensable for lookups. https://www.armenian.dpu.am/
Armeniapedia — کتاب گفت‌وگوی ارمنی. عبارات و گفت‌وگوهای پایه برای آغازگران. https://www.armeniapedia.org/wiki/An_Armenian-English_Conversation_Book
ARPABET phone tables, anchored to Aldebaro Klautau, "ARPABET and the TIMIT alphabet" (2001) and Daniel Jurafsky & James H. Martin, Speech and Language Processing, 1st ed. (Prentice Hall, 2000), 94–95, ISBN 0-13-095069-6 — ARPABET is a code for English phonemes, not an IPA transcription. Source of the ARPABET column. https://web.archive.org/web/20160603180727/http://www.laps.ufpa.br/aldebaro/papers/ak_arpabet01.pdf
arte.tv. Canale culturale franco-tedesco con molti programmi disponibili in francese con sottotitoli. Ottimo per l'italiano che vuole cultura e lingua insieme. arte.tv https://www.arte.tv/
arte.tv/de. Der deutsch-französische Kultursender bietet viele Sendungen mit deutschen und französischen Untertiteln. Ideal für den gleichzeitigen Vergleich beider Sprachen. arte.tv/de https://www.arte.tv/de/
Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, Ronda F. Lo, and Raymond A. Mar, "Multilingualism and Mentalizing Abilities in Adults," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26, no. 2 (2023): 456–467, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/multilingualism-and-mentalizing-abilities-in-adults/85A28F8CC53DC0C838823A73488AE55E. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/multilingualism-and-mentalizing-abilities-in-adults/85A28F8CC53DC0C838823A73488AE55E
Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, Academia Mexicana de la Lengua member page, accessed 2026-08-04. https://www.asale.org/academias/academia-mexicana-de-la-lengua
Assimil — L'Espagnol. L'Espagnol débutant — La méthode française par excellence, idéale pour démarrer en autonomie depuis le français. https://www.assimil.com/
Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek. reading-based course; grammar in context; widely used https://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/a/athenaze/
Audio Hijack. (macOS, Apple Silicon) — records system/Skype audio; useful for capturing tutor sessions. https://rogueamoeba.com/audiohijack/
Avañe'ẽ / Ateneo de Lengua y Cultura Guaraní. Instituição paraguaia de referência para o ensino e a normatização do guarani. https://www.ateneoguarani.edu.py/
Avelino, «Illustrations of the IPA: Mexico City Spanish», Journal of the International Phonetic Association: inventario consonántico, seseo (ausencia de /θ/), y transcripción estrecha del pasaje «El viento del norte y el sol». https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/C35C97AE9A19C9C222FD614D2D4125AA/S0025100316000232a.pdf/mexico-city-spanish.pdf
Aynu itak — Ainu Language Grammar Guide (Silja Ijas). free graded lessons, phrases & vocabulary https://www.aynuitak.org/home
Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. l’agence linguistique nationale indonésienne https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/
BAKITA. المجلس الوطني للغة السواحيلية في تنزانيا: المرجع المعياري للغة. https://www.bakita.go.tz/
Balai Bahasa Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Republic of Indonesia. BEJAJI learning portal and Kamus Bahasa Jawa–Indonesia (KBJI), developed from the Balai Bahasa's 2021 print dictionary. Also the reference point for the 2006 spelling standard used by this guide's vocabulary deck. https://bejaji.kemendikdasmen.go.id/
Ball, Martin J., John Esling, & Craig Dickson. "Revisions to the VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality." JIPA, 2017. doi:10.1017/S0025100317000159 (online 2017-04-13) — the current revision; aryepiglottic-phonation modifier. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100317000159
Ball, Martin J., Sara Howard, & Kirk Miller. "Revisions to the extIPA chart." Journal of the International Phonetic Association 48(2), 2018: 155–164. doi:10.1017/S0025100317000147 (online 11 April 2017) — the current chart; revision/ratification chronology. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100317000147
Basic Khmer — BCcampus (Pressbooks). A free, structured introductory course covering the script, pronunciation, and everyday language. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/basickhmer/
Basic Tamil — Michigan State University (Open Books). A free, structured university course covering script, pronunciation, and grammar — a solid first textbook. https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/basictamil/
Baskakov & Inkizhekova-Grekul, Хакасско-русский словарь (1953) and successors. The foundational dictionary line (via Russian). https://search.worldcat.org/search?q=хакасско-русский+словарь
Baskisch (euskara) ist eine isolierte Sprache (ohne bekannte Verwandte), gesprochen von ~750.000 Menschen im spanischen und französischen Baskenland; Standard ist Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Siehe „Baskische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baskische_Sprache
BBC Hausa. Daily authentic news audio and text. https://www.bbc.com/hausa
Beck, Christin, Miriam Butt, and Ashwini Deo. “Tracking Case Innovation: A Perspective from Marathi.” 2021, pp. 3, 5. The differential-object-marking analysis and the word-order consequence for doubly unmarked clauses. https://ling.sprachwiss.uni-konstanz.de/pages/home/beck/presentations/Marathi_DOM.pdf
Beckman & Elam — ToBI guidelines, HTML version. Browsable overview, tone tier, break-index tier, and conventions. https://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/research/phonetics/E_ToBI/singer_tobi.html
Beckman, Mary E., & Gayle Ayers Elam. Guidelines for ToBI Labelling, Version 3, March 1997. Ohio State University. Core guide: ToBI = Tones and Break Indices; tone/break-index/word/miscellaneous tiers; labels are phonological not raw F0; break indices are perceived juncture; original ToBI was for English and not intended to cover other languages; training-material copyright. https://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/research/phonetics/E_ToBI/
Beginners Welsh (Aberystwyth University). free structured beginners' course https://beginners.welsh/
Bell: Language style as audience design https://doi.org/10.1017/S004740450001037X
Bennett, W., Diemer, M., Kerford, J., Probert, T., & Wesi, T. "Setswana (South African)." Journal of the International Phonetic Association 46(2), 2016: 235–246 — the modern phonetic description (paywalled; phonology taken via the derived accounts). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100315000383
Bennett, Wm. G. The Phonology of Consonants: Harmony, Dissimilation, and Correspondence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015, p. 132. Cited for the observation that ar does not become al when the conditioning r stands in the onset of the following syllable — hence caruriga, not *caluriga. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139683586
Bernard & White-Kaba, Dictionnaire zarma-français (ACCT, 1994). The standard modern dictionary (via French). https://catalogue.bnf.fr/changerPage.do?motRecherche=dictionnaire+zarma-fran%C3%A7ais
Bernard, Yves, and Mary White-Kaba. Dictionnaire zarma-français (République du Niger). Paris: Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (ACCT), 1994 — the standard modern dictionary; reference for standard lexical forms used in the vocabulary deck. https://search.worldcat.org/title/32986639
Bertilo Wennergren, Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko (PMEG), version 15.5 (2024). The standard modern descriptive reference grammar of Esperanto, used to verify the correlatives, participles and preposition usage. https://bertilow.com/pmeg/
bescherelle.com. La conjugaison pour tous — Il dizionario di coniugazione francese per eccellenza. Indispensabile per interiorizzare le coniugazioni irregolari. Disponibile anche come app. bescherelle.com https://bescherelle.com/
Biber and Conrad: Register, Genre, and Style https://assets.cambridge.org/97811084/44088/excerpt/9781108444088_excerpt.pdf
Birchbark Books & Native Arts. Minneapolis bookstore owned by Ojibwe author Louise Erdrich, with a dedicated Native American and Ojibwe-language section — a starting point for Ojibwe-authored books in English and Ojibwe. https://birchbarkbooks.com/
Birgit Spechtenhauser and Ulrike Jessner, "Complex Interactions in the Multilingual Mind: Assessing Metalinguistic Abilities and Their Effects on Decoding a New Language System in Trilingual Learners," Lingua 301 (2024): 103678, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2024.103678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2024.103678
Björkman, Måns. "Tengwar — English General Use." Amanye Tenceli — the Appendix E quotation on there being no mode for English, the orthographic/phonemic distinction and its details (silent e, doubled consonants, diphthong writing with anna and vala, dropped unstressed vowels, nasal bar, s-hook, shorthands for the/of/of the/and), and the note on dialect variability. https://at.boktypografen.se/teng_general_english.htm
Björkman, Måns. "Tengwar Modes." Amanye Tenceli — the classification by vowel-marking and velar series, the mode table used here with sample languages and DTS references, the caution that mode names are provisional. https://at.boktypografen.se/teng_modes.htm
Björkman, Måns. "Tengwar Names." Amanye Tenceli — the Quenya "full names" from Appendix E with glosses and classical-mode values for tengwar 1–36, the unnumbered halla and vaia, the tyelpetéma, carriers (telco, ára) and tehta names. https://at.boktypografen.se/teng_names.htm
Blackfoot Language Resources (Kiistonnoon aiitsi'poyio'pa), University of Lethbridge and Carleton University, dir. Inge Genee and Marie-Odile Junker, grammar section, accessed 4 August 2026. https://blackfoot.algonquianlanguages.ca/grammar/
Blackfoot Language Workbook (Delaney & Many Grey Horses, Galt Museum, 2020). Free community-authored PDF workbook — greetings, numbers, kinship, animals https://www.galtmuseum.com/s/2020-11-22-Blackfoot-Language-Workbook-FINAL.pdf
Blust, Robert. “The Greater North Borneo Hypothesis.” Oceanic Linguistics 49, no. 1 (2010): 44–118; and Blust, The Austronesian Languages, rev. ed. (Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics, 2013). Cited for the proposed relationship between Sundanese, the Malayic languages and the Land Dayak and Kayan–Murik groups of Borneo. https://doi.org/10.1353/ol.0.0060
Blyth, Carl (1997). French and Creole in Louisiana. New York : Plenum Press, p. 40–41 (ISBN 0-306-45464-5) — transcriptions d'entretiens avec des locuteurs cadiens (extraits courts cités via [1]) ; anglicismes conjugués (driver, wringer, freezer) et alternance codique comme marque de compétence bilingue. Confiance : élevée. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French#Language_samples
Boarische Wikipedia (bairische Wikipedia). verständlicher schriftlicher Input auf Bairisch https://bar.wikipedia.org/
Bobaljik, Jonathan David. “In Defense of a Universal: A Brief Note on Case, Agreement, and Differential Object Marking.” March 2017, pp. 5, 9–10. The competing analysis on which Marathi has no accusative case and -ला is shared between the dative and definite object marking. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bobaljik/files/bobaljik_2017_caseagrdom.pdf
Boersma, Paul, & David Weenink. Praat: doing phonetics by computer [Computer program]. Institute of Phonetic Sciences, University of Amsterdam; praat.org / fon.hum.uva.nl/praat. Authors and home page verified 2026-07-16 via the manual. Community self-citation format with user-supplied version/date. https://www.praat.org
Bolles — Combined Dictionary–Concordance of the Yucatecan Mayan Language. Free online dictionary and concordance. http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/index.html
Bolles, David, and Alejandra Bolles. “A Grammar of the Yucatecan Mayan Language” and “Combined Dictionary–Concordance of the Yucatecan Mayan Language.” Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies (FAMSI), revised editions. Free online reference works. http://www.famsi.org/research/bolles/grammar/index.html
Bòrd na Gàidhlig, Scottish Gaelic development body, accessed 2026-07-26. https://www.gaidhlig.scot/
Botswana Daily News (Dikgang) Setswana pages and Radio Botswana RB1 — contemporary written and broadcast standards. https://dailynews.gov.bw/
Bozena Pajak, Alex B. Fine, Dave F. Kleinschmidt, and T. Florian Jaeger, "Learning Additional Languages as Hierarchical Probabilistic Inference: Insights from First Language Processing," Language Learning 66, no. 4 (2016): 900–944, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5365092/. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5365092/
Brazil, Ministério da Educação (MEC). “Decreto — Acordo Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa (entry into force in Brazil from 1 January 2009).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Official decree text confirming the Agreement (signed 16 Dec 1990, ratified by Decreto Legislativo 54 of 18 April 1995) entered into force in Brazil on 1 January 2009, with a transition period during which the prior norm coexisted. https://portal.mec.gov.br/arquivos/pdf/decreto_ortografico.pdf
Brazilian Federal Senate (Senado Federal) — Biblioteca Digital. “Acordo Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa (signed Lisbon, 16 December 1990).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Primary text of the 1990 Orthographic Agreement (preamble + 4 articles), including Article 3 (originally scheduled entry into force 1 Jan 1994 upon ratification by all signatories) and the list of signatory states. https://www2.senado.leg.br/bdsf/bitstream/handle/id/508145/000997415.pdf
Bricker Mayan Languages Collection at AILLA. 714 archival files of recordings and transcriptions in Yucatec, Tzotzil and Chʼol. https://ailla.utexas.org/islandora/object/ailla%3A124468
Bricker, Victoria, Eleuterio Poʼot Yah, and Ofelia Dzul de Poʼot. A Dictionary of the Maya Language as Spoken in Hocabá, Yucatán. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1998. Cited for the statement that non-glottalised stops are unaspirated (p. XII) and for the Hocabá variant name mayab tʼàan (p. 181). https://uofupress.lib.utah.edu/dictionary-of-the-maya-language/
Britannica — Uzbek language. Concise scholarly overview of Uzbek's history, scripts and place in the Turkic family. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uzbek-language
Britannica Editors, «Ovimbundu», Encyclopædia Britannica (consultado em 11 de junho de 2026) — povo Ovimbundu, demografia e geografia em Angola. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ovimbundu
Britannica: Tamil language（B. Krishnamurti 撰）. 权威的类型学与历史概述。 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language
Brown: Honorifics and Politeness https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118371008.ch17
Browne, Wayles. "Serbo-Croat." In The Slavonic Languages, edited by Bernard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett. London: Routledge, 1993. The standard reference grammatical sketch. Cited here for onward routing; its full text was not consulted for this build, so no paradigm has been reproduced from it. https://www.routledge.com/The-Slavonic-Languages/Comrie-Corbett/p/book/9780415280785
Burmese overview. Background on tones, script and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language
C. Maxwell Churchward, Rotuman Grammar and Dictionary (Sydney: Australasian Medical Publishing Co., 1940); English-to-Rotuman wordlist compiled by Alan Howard with Elizabeth K. M. Inia, Sofie Arntsen, Hans Schmidt and Jan Rensel and published in A New Rotuman Dictionary (Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1998). http://www.rotuma.net/os/English-Rotuman_wordlist.pdf
C. Maxwell Churchward, Tongan Grammar (1953) — the standard reference grammar (VSO, articles, registers, possession). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/tong1325
Cambodian: An Essential Grammar (Franklin Huffman tradition). A reference grammar of modern spoken Khmer for serious study. https://www.cseashawaii.org/
Caminhos Language Centre. “Brazilian Movies: a list for your Portuguese learning.” Accessed 2026-07-18. Source for the verified Brazilian film list (Central do Brasil, Cidade de Deus, Ônibus 174, Tropa de Elite, Que Horas Ela Volta?, O Auto da Compadecida). Reliability: moderate (language-school blog; all titles independently well known). https://caminhoslanguages.com/blog/brazilian-movies/
Camões, I.P., Centro Virtual Camões, ‘Área Aprender,’ accessed 2026-08-04. Links to a European Portuguese pronunciation course and a beginner conversation guide. https://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/area-aprender
Camões: speaking area. European Portuguese pronunciation materials and exercises. https://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/area-aprender-a-falar
Canto-Conversations. $100 for a curated set of native-speaker dialogues with vocabulary lists & transcripts. Good value for the content provided. https://canto-conversations.com/
CantoDict. Онлайн-словник з Jyutping і прикладами. https://www.cantodict.org/
Cantonese to Jyutping. converts Chinese characters to Jyutping romanization. https://jyutping.org/
Cantonese.sheik.co.uk. comprehensive dictionary with grammar tools & romanization converters. https://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/
Cantonese101.com. a structured, comprehensive course with excellent vocabulary lists, SRS tools, & PDF materials. The platform is self-promotional, but the content quality is high. If committing to this course, the full premium tier is recommended to consolidate all study into one platform. Supplement with iTalki lessons. Expensive. https://www.cantonese101.com/
Cardinal numerals (go'o, ɗiɗi, tati, nayi, joyi, jeegom, jeeɗiɗi, jeetati, jeenayi, sappo; noogas 20, teemedere 100, ujunere 1000) per Omniglot, 'Fula numbers'; greetings (jam 'peace', jam tan, jaaraama 'thank you', eey 'yes', alaa 'no') per Fulfulde/Pulaar teaching resources (incl. Univ. of Wisconsin LCTL). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/fula.htm
Cardona, George, and Babu Suthar. “Gujarati.” In The Indo-Aryan Languages, edited by George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain, 659–97. London: Routledge, 2003. The standard reference description of Gujarati morphology, including the three-gender system and split ergativity. https://www.routledge.com/The-Indo-Aryan-Languages/Cardona-Jain/p/book/9780415772945
Carey, A Grammar of the Marathi Language (1805). The first modern grammar of Marathi, printed at Serampore. Of historical interest, and out of copyright. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/grammar-of-the-marathi-language/
Carnegie Mellon University, The CMU Pronouncing Dictionary — the standard free US-English pronunciation lexicon, written in two-letter ARPABET with 0/1/2 stress digits on vowels; keeps ARPABET in daily ASR/TTS/NLP use. http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict
Case system, the five declensions and the four conjugations follow the standard reference: J. B. Greenough et al., Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (Boston: Ginn, 1903), hosted by the Dickinson College Commentaries. https://dcc.dickinson.edu/grammar/latin
CBC News (2019), ‘“A sense of pride”: Mi’kmaw language lessons at work’ — speaker communities in Unama’ki (Cape Breton) and revitalization at the Unama’ki Institute of Natural Resources and in schools. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/mi-kmaw-language-unama-ki-institute-natural-resources-1.5258056
CC-Canto. Cantonese-English dictionary with Jyutping & audio. https://cantodict.org/
CCTV / 央视网. 중국 국영 방송. 생생한 중국어 듣기 연습에. https://www.cctv.com/
CeLCAR Turkmen (Indiana University). Üniversite kaynakli Türkmençe ögronme materyalleri ve dil portali. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/turkmen.html
Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region (CeLCAR), Indiana University, "Kyrgyz," language portal, accessed June 23, 2026, https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/kyrgyz.html. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/kyrgyz.html
Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region (CeLCAR), Indiana University, "Pashto," language portal, accessed June 23, 2026, https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html
Centro Virtual Cervantes. Ressources de l'Instituto Cervantes, l'organisme officiel de la langue espagnole. https://cvc.cervantes.es/
Charles N. Li & Sandra A. Thompson, Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), Introduction. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520066106/mandarin-chinese
Chen, Yiya & Carlos Gussenhoven, «Shanghai Chinese», Journal of the International Phonetic Association 45, no. 3 (2015): 321–337 ——上海话语音与声调的现代语音学描述。 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100315000043
Chinese Text Project (ctext.org). searchable classical texts with dictionary lookup https://ctext.org/
Chinook and shorthand rudiments (Le Jeune, Kamloops, 1898). Le Jeune's own teaching manual for chinuk pipa http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.15465/
Ciberdúvidas da Língua Portuguesa, treatment-form consultations, accessed 2026-08-04. Used to preserve social and regional caution around tu, você, and address choices. https://ciberduvidas.iscte-iul.pt/artigos/rubricas/ciberduvidas_responde/areas/Formas%20de%20tratamento
Classical/Literary Chinese (文言文) is the written literary language based on the Warring States classics, used across the Sinosphere for two millennia; “Old Chinese” by contrast refers to the reconstructed spoken language of the Shang–Zhou. See “Classical Chinese.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese
Clozemaster. Ефективний інструмент для закріплення лексики в контексті речень. https://www.clozemaster.com/
CNRS and Centre de recherche bretonne et celtique. Documentation of the Atlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne and the Nouvel atlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne. Accessed July 17, 2026. Pierre Le Roux's ALBB, six volumes published 1924–1953 with approximately 100 maps per volume, surveyed 77 points; Jean Le Dû's NALBB expanded coverage to 187 points. Historical field records requiring date, survey point and elicitation question before any form is presented as current usage. https://ichtyo.cnrs.fr/pages/fr/contextefr.php
Codex Argenteus (Uppsala University Library). The principal manuscript witness; digitised facsimiles are available https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Argenteus
CODOFIL — Conseil pour le développement du français en Louisiane (codofil.la.gov), agence d'État fondée en 1968. Confiance : élevée. https://www.crt.state.la.us/cultural-development/codofil/
CODOFIL. Louisiana's official body for French; programs and resources. https://www.codofil.org/
Coe & Van Stone, Reading the Maya Glyphs. accessible introduction https://thamesandhudson.com/reading-the-maya-glyphs-9780500285534
Coffee Break Italian. Excelente curso de audio estructurado. https://www.coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakitalian/
Coffee Break Spanish. Podcast structuré et progressif pour apprendre l'espagnol par petites étapes. https://coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakspanish/
coffeebreaklanguages.com. Strukturierter Podcast von Null bis Fortgeschrittene, mit klaren Erklärungen (auf Englisch, aber leicht verständlich). Ideal für die ersten Monate. coffeebreaklanguages.com https://coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakfrench/
Cole, Desmond T. An Introduction to Tswana Grammar. London: Longmans, Green, 1955 — noun-class system (pp. 68–70), concords, derivational morphology (as cited through the standard descriptions). https://search.worldcat.org/search?q=Cole+Introduction+to+Tswana+Grammar
Colin B. D. Mark, The Gaelic-English Dictionary, Routledge, 2003; use alongside current community resources. https://www.learngaelic.scot/
Colloquial Swahili (Routledge). curso completo para principiantes https://www.routledge.com/Colloquial-Swahili-The-Complete-Course-for-Beginners/Marten-Russell/p/book/9780415580700
Colour words in Telugu (Omniglot). Extensive colour vocabulary contributed by Kal'yaan Shriinivas https://www.omniglot.com/language/colours/telugu.htm
CONADI (Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena), the Chilean state's indigenous development corporation, and its Azümchefe alphabet: 28 letters in a non-conventional order, state-promoted as a single alphabet intended to end grafemario confusion, and contested by some Mapuche linguists and communities. https://www.conadi.gob.cl/
ConScript Unicode Registry — Tengwar. The unofficial U+E000–U+E07F allocation used by the Unicode-aware fonts. http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/tengwar.html
Constanza Quinteros Ortiz, "Navigating Language Learning through Metalinguistic Beliefs: A Theoretical Exploration Informed by Multilingual Narratives," Frontiers in Language Sciences 5 (2026), https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/language-sciences/articles/10.3389/flang.2026.1757671/full. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/language-sciences/articles/10.3389/flang.2026.1757671/full
Constitución de Colombia (1991, rev. 2005), artículo 10: el castellano es la lengua oficial; las lenguas y dialectos de los grupos étnicos son oficiales en sus territorios; la enseñanza en comunidades con tradición lingüística propia es bilingüe. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Colombia_2005
Constitution of Colombia, Article 10 — Spanish as official language, the co-official status of ethnic groups' languages in their territories, and bilingual education. Recorded as source S06 in the dossier. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Colombia_2015
Convert Jyutping ⇔ Yale. bidirectional romanization converter. https://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/tools/jyutping-yale/
Convert Traditional ⇔ Simplified. character set converter. https://www.chineseconverter.com/en/convert/chinese-traditional-to-simplified
Corpus del Español Mexicano Contemporáneo. Keep source metadata and rights with any quotation. http://cemc.colmex.mx/
Cosmoglotta (Kosmoglott 1922–1926; Cosmoglotta 1927– ), the periodical of the Occidental/Interlingue movement, digitized in the Austrian National Library ANNO archive and referenced throughout the Wikipedia grammar article as the primary attestation corpus for the language. https://anno.onb.ac.at/
Council of Europe, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment — Companion Volume (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2020); graded readers below follow its A1–B2 descriptors. Cf. Deutsche Welle, “Nicos Weg” (A1–B1 course). https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages
Crimean Gothic survived in isolated mountain regions of Crimea into the second half of the 18th century, but lacks sound changes characteristic of Gothic and so cannot be a lineal descendant of the language of the Codex Argenteus. See “Crimean Gothic.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Gothic
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Uses the Nivkh numeral-classifier system — the separate counting words for sledges and for fishnets — as its textbook illustration of what erodes first in language obsolescence. https://www.cambridge.org/9780521012713
Cultural Survival, ‘Reviving Passamaquoddy: A Community Finds Healing Through Its Own Language’ — the language’s critically endangered status and community-led revitalization (Indian Township / Sipayik bilingual education). https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/reviving-passamaquoddy-community-finds-healing-through-its-own-language
Culture Spears and Botswana traditional pop. Kulenyane and other Setswana-language hits. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_Spears
D. P. S. Monyaise — the great Setswana novelist. Omphile Umphi Modise, Bogosi Kupe — the literary canon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.P.S._Monyaise
Dalmatian (Vegliote) cardinal numbers 1–10 and higher, compiled by Wolfgang Kuhl. Omniglot, 'Numbers in Dalmatian'. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/dalmatian.htm
Dalmatian as an extinct Romance language of Dalmatia and as far south as Kotor; speaker towns (Zadar, Trogir, Spalato, Ragusa, Kotor) and islands (Krk, Cres, Rab); the Vegliote and Ragusan branches; Vegliote's native name Viklasun and the derivation from Veglia/Vikla; Ragusan as the official language of the Republic of Ragusa; the disputed Italo-Romance classification and transitional features toward Eastern Romance including Latin intervocalic /ts/ as /tʃ/. See “Dalmatian language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatian_language
DANE, Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2018 — definitive total population of Colombia, 48,258,494. Recorded as source S05 in the dossier. https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/demografia-y-poblacion/censo-nacional-de-poblacion-y-vivenda-2018
Daniel Coste, Danièle Moore, and Geneviève Zarate, Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2009). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Plurilingual%20and%20Pluricultural%20Competence%20Coste%20Moore%20Zarate
David M. Eberhard, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 27th ed. (Dallas: SIL International, 2024), s.v. “German”; German is also the most widely spoken native language in the European Union (Special Eurobarometer 540, 2024). https://www.ethnologue.com/language/deu/
David Salo, Midgardsmal (blog) — the linguist's own account of creating Neo-Khuzdul for Peter Jackson's films, including its Semitic (Arabic-inspired) morphology and film phrases. https://midgardsmal.com/
David Smyth, Colloquial Cambodian (Routledge); Headley et al., Cambodian–English Dictionary (1977). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_language
David Somfai Kara, Kyrgyz (Languages of the World/Materials 705) (Munich: LINCOM Europa, 2003), Introduction & Phonology. https://lincom-shop.eu/
David W. Green and Jubin Abutalebi, "Language Control in Bilinguals: The Adaptive Control Hypothesis," Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25, no. 5 (2013): 515–530, https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377
de.pons.com. Das bekannteste bilinguale Wörterbuch für Deutschsprachige, mit Aussprache, Beispielen und Konjugationstabellen. de.pons.com https://de.pons.com/übersetzung/französisch-deutsch
Departamento de Lengua de la Nación Cherokee. La fuente oficial. Lecciones en video, instrucción del silabario y módulos de vocabulario, en inglés. Es el punto de partida más sólido disponible. https://www.cherokee.org/learn-cherokee/
Deutsche Welle — Nicos Weg (한국어판). Nicos Weg (한국어판) 입문~B1 — A1~B1 수준의 무료 동영상 강좌. 한국어 자막 포함. 독일 일상생활을 배경으로 자연스러운 독일어를 배울 수 있는 최고의 무료 리소스 중 하나. https://learngerman.dw.com/ko/nicos-weg/c-36519687
Deutsche Welle — 독일어 학습 허브. 독일어 학습 허브 모든 수준 — 뉴스 기사를 통한 독해 학습, 단어 테스트 등 다양한 무료 콘텐츠 제공. https://www.dw.com/de/deutsch-lernen/s-2055
Dewaele and Wei, "Multilingualism, Empathy and Multicompetence"; Koch, Kersten, and Greve, "An Emotional Advantage of Multilingualism"; Chung-Fat-Yim, Lo, and Mar, "Multilingualism and Mentalizing Abilities in Adults"; Zhang, Yu, and Xu, "Effects of Learning Multiple Foreign Languages"; Wang and Wei, "Is Bilingualism Linked to Well-Being?"; Hubscher-Davidson, "The Psychological Benefits of Multilingualism"; Lee, Ho, and Chen, "Integrating Intercultural Communicative Competence"; Sharifian, "Globalisation and Developing Metacultural Competence." https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2012.714380
DGLAi — IRCAM general dictionary. Amazigh–French–Arabic dictionary https://tal.ircam.ma/dglai/
Dhongde, Ramesh Vaman, and Kashi Wali. Marathi. London Oriental and African Language Library 13. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009, pp. 43–45, 109–19. The two-case (direct/oblique) analysis, the distinction between adpositions and true postpositions, and the treatment of split ergativity. https://benjamins.com/catalog/loall.13
Diane Duane, My Enemy, My Ally (1984) and The Romulan Way (1987), collected in The Bloodwing Voyages — the licensed novels that created the Rihannsu language sketch and its cultural core (mnhei'sahe); cited here via the Memory Beta documentation above. https://memory-beta.fandom.com/wiki/Rihannsu
Diccionari obert (DACCO). Open Catalan–English dictionary plus the authoritative Institut d'Estudis Catalans dictionary. https://www.dacco.cat/
Diccionario AULEX aymara–español. Diccionario práctico en línea. https://aulex.org/ay-es/
Diccionario AULEX náhuatl–español. Diccionario práctico de consulta rápida. https://aulex.org/nah-es/
Diccionario de la lengua española (RAE). la oficiala vortaro de la hispana lingvo, senpaga https://dle.rae.es/
Dicionário Glosbe português–shona. Dicionário com frases de exemplo. https://glosbe.com/pt/sn
Dicionário Glosbe português–xhosa. Dicionário com frases de exemplo. https://glosbe.com/pt/xh
Dicionário Michaelis (italiano). dicionário de apoio https://michaelis.uol.com.br/
Dickey, Stephen M. Review of Ronelle Alexander and Ellen Elias-Bursać, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: A Textbook. SlavFile, 2006. Source of the pedagogical sequencing reported in section 3 (all seven cases across the first eight lessons; future tense in lesson 9; past tense in lesson 10; aorist and imperfect in lesson 12 as "otherwise rare forms" included mainly to support poetry reading), of the attested textbook example Pišeš li pismo?, of the observation that relative clauses require koji and that the future exact occurs almost exclusively in conditionals, and of the reviewer's characterisation of conditional sentences as one of the most difficult areas of BCS grammar. The comparative claim that BCS aspect is easier than Russian aspect is this reviewer's assessment and is reported as opinion. https://www.atanet.org/divisions/slavic-languages-division/slavfile/
Dickinson College Commentaries. annotated Latin texts with core vocabulary lists https://dcc.dickinson.edu/
Dictionare ale limbii romane (dexonline). Il grande dizionario online del rumeno, basato sui dizionari accademici. https://dexonline.ro/
Dictionario Elhuyar (euskara–espaniol/anglese/francese). dictionario standard, in linea e gratuite https://hiztegiak.elhuyar.eus/
Dictionary of Louisiana French. The standard scholarly dictionary, searchable online. https://dictionaryoflouisianafrench.org/
Dictionnaire Glosbe français–xhosa. Dictionnaire avec phrases d'exemple. https://glosbe.com/fr/xh
Dictionnaire Glosbe français–yorùbá. Dictionnaire avec exemples et audio. https://glosbe.com/fr/yo
Dictionnaire québécois. Glossary of québécois words and expressions. http://www.dictionnaire-quebecois.com/
DIEC2 — Diccionari de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans. das maßgebliche einsprachige Wörterbuch https://dlc.iec.cat/
Digital Archive of Scottish Gaelic (DASG), corpus and lexical resources, accessed 2026-07-26. https://dasg.ac.uk/
Diouf, Grammaire du wolof contemporain (Karthala). Grammaire de référence du wolof moderne (Jean-Léopold Diouf). https://www.karthala.com/
Disionario de Elefen. The official LFN–English dictionary, with 20,000+ entries; also published in print (Evertype, 2018, ISBN 978-1782012177). https://elefen.org/disionario/
Distinctive Caledonian vocabulary (e.g. topette 'beer bottle', tata 'goodbye', kaï-kaï 'food', nakamal 'meeting place', yossi (surprise), Zoreille 'Metropolitan French person', le Caillou 'New Caledonia', and the expressions « Casse pas la tête » and « C'est choc ») per Le Français de Nouvelle-Calédonie : Dictionnaire de Calédonien (Croix du Sud) and 'New Caledonian French.' https://www.croixdusud.info/dico/dic_lettre.php
Dixon, R. M. W. Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. The fluid-S typology under which Yucatec's core-argument marking is analysed. https://archive.org/details/ergativity0000dixo
Dizionario Zanichelli (lo Zingarelli). Standardwörterbuch https://dizionaripiu.zanichelli.it/
Don Ringe, From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. the standard scholarly account https://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/l/linguistic-history-of-english-lhe/
Donald G. Frantz and Norma Jean Russell, The Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes, 3rd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017), the database behind the University of Lethbridge online dictionary. Cited as the authority for the orthography; the online dictionary prohibits bulk extraction and was not scraped. https://dictionary.blackfoot.atlas-ling.ca/
Donald G. Frantz, Blackfoot Grammar, 3rd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017), quoted with page numbers in the LinguaCommons Blackfoot research dossier, which draws them from Wikipedia's page-cited digest rather than from direct reading of the grammar; supplemented by Miyashita & Chatsis on orthographies and dialect variation. https://blackfoot.algonquianlanguages.ca/resources/blackfoot-grammars-and-dictionaries/
DOOM3 — Romanian Academy orthographic dictionary (online). The official spelling, pronunciation, and morphology dictionary — the authority on correct forms. https://doom.lingv.ro/
Dreaming Spanish. Vidéos en espagnol compréhensible, classées du niveau super débutant à avancé (input compréhensible). https://www.dreamingspanish.com/
Dryer, Matthew S. “Datapoint Marathi / Order of Subject, Object and Verb.” WALS Online, 21 April 2008. Cited for SOV as the dominant order. https://wals.info/valuesets/81A-mhi
DSAL / Biswas Bengali–English dictionaries. Scholarly online dictionaries from the Digital South Asia Library. https://www.uchicago.edu/
dscorbett/duployan-font on GitHub — the principal free font implementation and online keyboard, and the practical reason Duployan text so often fails to render. https://github.com/dscorbett/duployan-font
Duden, Die Grammatik, 9th ed., Duden Bd. 4 (Berlin: Dudenverlag, 2016): German marks four cases (Nominativ, Akkusativ, Dativ, Genitiv) on articles, adjectives and nouns. https://www.duden.de/
Duolingo — italiano. basas gratuite pro le habito quotidian https://www.duolingo.com/course/it/en/Learn-Italian
Duolingo — Italiano. bases gratuitas, bom para o hábito diário https://pt.duolingo.com/course/it/pt/aprender-italiano
Duolingo — Italien. bases gratuites, bon pour l’habitude quotidienne https://fr.duolingo.com/course/it/fr/apprendre-l-italien
Duolingo — Italienisch. kostenlose Grundlagen für die tägliche Gewohnheit https://de.duolingo.com/course/it/de/Italienisch-lernen
Duolingo — la indonezia (per la angla). senpagaj bazaĵoj (kurso en la angla) https://www.duolingo.com/course/id/en/Learn-Indonesian
Duolingo — Latin. gamified basics; useful for habit, not as a primary course https://www.duolingo.com/course/la/en/Learn-Latin
Duolingo — Walisisch. kostenlose Grundlagen (Kurs über Englisch) https://www.duolingo.com/course/cy/en/Learn-Welsh
Duolingo Catalán (desde español). Curso gratuito pensado justamente para hispanohablantes. https://www.duolingo.com/course/ca/es/Aprende-catalan
Duolingo Catalan. A free course, though only from Spanish. [bridge: taught through Spanish, not English] https://www.duolingo.com/course/ca/es/Learn-Catalan
Duolingo Hawaiian. A free gamified intro; good for the first few hundred words and basic sentence shapes. https://www.duolingo.com/course/haw/en/Learn-Hawaiian
Duolingo Hindi. Free gamified intro; good for the script and first vocabulary. https://www.duolingo.com/course/hi/en/Learn-Hindi
Duolingo Turkish. Khóa miễn phí, có audio. https://www.duolingo.com/course/tr/en/Learn-Turkish
Duolingo. 매일 꾸준히 연습하기에 좋은 무료 앱. 초기 어휘와 기초 문장 습득에 유용합니다. ※영어 기반 https://www.duolingo.com/course/de/en/Learn-German
Duolingo. 무료 앱으로 매일 조금씩. 초기 단어와 기초 문장 습득에 유용합니다. ※영어 기반 https://www.duolingo.com/course/es/en/Learn-Spanish
duolingo.com. Corso di francese dall'italiano con spiegazioni in italiano. Ottimo per creare un'abitudine quotidiana e acquisire vocabulario di base. duolingo.com https://www.duolingo.com/
DW — Deutsch lernen. Deutsch lernen — Безкоштовний структурований онлайн-курс від A1 до C1. Українська мова є серед мов інтерфейсу. https://learngerman.dw.com/
DWDS — Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. vortaro kun ekzemploj el korpuso https://www.dwds.de/
E. O. Ashton, Swahili Grammar (Including Intonation), 2nd ed. (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1947); on Arabic loanwords and orthography cf. Swahili (Bantu language), historical Ajami script. https://archive.org/details/swahiligrammarin0000asht
EAGLES — Computer phonetic alphabets. The Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards on SAMPA's history and status. https://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/spokentx/node28.html
Eastern Abenaki is an Abenakian Eastern Algonquian language of Maine (dialects incl. Penobscot), now dormant. See “Eastern Abenaki language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Abenaki_language
Easy Cantonese. part of the Easy Languages channel group; street interviews with subtitles. https://www.youtube.com/@EasyCantonese
Easy German (YouTube). Вуличні інтерв'ю з субтитрами; відмінний розмовний матеріал від A2. https://www.youtube.com/@easygerman
ebci.com. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians runs the Kituwah Language Academy and adult learner programs. See ebci.com for current contact information. https://ebci.com/
Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds. “Javanese (jav).” Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International. The 84.3 million figure rests chiefly on the Indonesian census of 2000. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/jav/
Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds. “Marathi (mar).” Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International. Source for the 83,000,000 L1 (2011 census) and 12,200,000 L2 (2001 census) figures, EGIDS 2 status, the verbatim typological summary quoted in section 1, the geographic distribution including the Thanjavur enclave, the L2-user communities and the 2001 literacy figure. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mar/
EBS 외국어 강좌 — 스페인어. 스페인어 입문~중급 — 한국어로 진행되는 한국 공영방송의 스페인어 강좌. TV·라디오·온라인으로 수강 가능. https://www.ebs.co.kr/
EBS 외국어 강좌 — 프랑스어. 프랑스어 — EBS에서 제공하는 한국어 해설 프랑스어 강좌. 초급부터 체계적으로 학습할 수 있는 방송 강의입니다. 입문~중급 https://www.ebs.co.kr
Edgar C. Polome, Swahili Language Handbook (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1967), introduction and lexicon. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED012888
Edgar R. Eslit, "The Ethics of Language Learning: Promoting Inclusivity, Cultural Understanding and Effective Communication," Journal of Philosophy and Ethics 5, no. 1 (2023): 17–25. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Eslit%20The%20Ethics%20of%20Language%20Learning%20Promoting%20Inclusivity%20Cultural%20Understanding
Edkins, Joseph, A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese: As Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect (Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press, 1853/1868) ——最早的上海话罗马化与语法记录之一。 https://books.google.com/books?id=ajxMAAAAYAAJ
Edward Vajda, current faculty profile, Western Washington University — cited fluent-speaker estimate of fewer than 50. RESEARCH/Ket/language-profile.md [K08], direct-read 2026-07-17.
Einordnung des Wienerischen ins Mittelbairische; fehlender eigener ISO-639-3-Code und nicht standardisierte Verschriftung; Monophthongierungsbeispiele heiß/hoaß/haaß, weiß/wääß, Haus/Håås mit IPA; Genitivmeidung und Um Gotts Wülln; ohne mit Dativ; belegte Sätze zur satzfinalen und emphatischen Vokaldehnung; Domänenverteilung zwischen Dialekt und Standard. Siehe „Viennese German“. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viennese_German
EITB (ETB1). Basque public TV and a Basque-only newspaper for authentic input. https://www.eitb.eus/eu/
El Colegio de México, Diccionario del español de México, accessed 2026-08-04. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 content is linked for consultation, not bulk extraction. https://dem.colmex.mx/Default.aspx
El indonesio (bahasa Indonesia) es una lengua austronesia, oficial de Indonesia, entendida por más de 200 millones de personas; escritura latina y fonética. Véase « Idioma indonesio ». https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_indonesio
El sözdük (Kirgizca sözlük). Kirgizca çevrimiçi sözlük; temel basvuru kaynagi. https://sozduk.kg/
El suajili (Kiswahili) es una lengua bantú, lengua franca de África Oriental, entendida por más de 100 millones de personas (mayormente L2), oficial en Tanzania y Kenia; escritura latina y fonética. Véase « Idioma suajili ». https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_suajili
Eldamo — Tolkien Language Database. Comprehensive searchable lexicon of all of Tolkien's languages, with every word cited to its primary source. The essential scholarly reference. https://eldamo.org/
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL, Oxford). literary texts with translations https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/
Elefen — official site. Home of Lingua Franca Nova: the official grammar, the searchable dictionary, and a library of texts. Maintained by the LFN community (ALFN). https://elefen.org/
Ellen Bialystok, Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Bialystok%20Bilingualism%20in%20Development%20Language%20Literacy%20and%20Cognition
Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Gigi Luk, "Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, no. 4 (2012): 240–250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
Encyclopaedia Britannica (article by Rebecca Posner). “Brazilian Portuguese language.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for history (16th-c. introduction; standard Portuguese from Lisbon-Coimbra dialects), four main dialect groups, r-sound contrast (caro vs carro), pre-verbal object pronouns, and speaker estimate (~187 million in Brazil, early 21st c.). https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brazilian-Portuguese-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Arabic language," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Georgian language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Georgian-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Georgian-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Hindi language," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindi-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindi-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Kazakh language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kazakh-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kazakh-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Kurdish language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurdish-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurdish-language
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Pashto language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashto-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashto-language
Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Persian language," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Persian-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Persian-language
Encyclopædia Iranica. فارسی زبان، ادب اور ثقافت پر مستند علمی حوالہ (انگریزی میں)۔ https://www.iranicaonline.org/
Endangered Languages Project — Maliseet-Passamaquoddy: Guide to Noun & Verb Charts (reference on the animate/inanimate gender system and the AI/II/TA/TI verb classes). https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1748/guide/7377
Endangered Languages Project. "Sakhalin Nivkh" (and "Amur Nivkh"). ISO niv; classified severely endangered; census figures, literary standard on the central dialect, script history (Latin 1931 → Cyrillic 1953). The page is JavaScript-rendered and returned no text to an automated fetch on August 4, 2026; content per the in-repo dossier's 2026-07-16 retrieval. https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/niv
English → Rotuman wordlist (Howard, Inia, Arntsen, Schmidt, Rensel). 277-page searchable PDF, over 10,000 English headwords, built on Churchward 1940 http://www.rotuma.net/os/wordlist.htm
ePSD — Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary. online dictionary http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/
Ernest T. Abdel-Massih, An Introduction to Egyptian Arabic, University of Michigan Library open educational-resource record, accessed 2026-08-04. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/items/99fa246c-b1e4-453c-a3b6-a9ab145a581b
Errington, Joseph. Shifting Languages: Interaction and Identity in Javanese Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/shifting-languages/1A425BF7A7833769F4CF9A001CA35A21
esadir.cat. Portale linguistico dei media catalani: pronuncia, toponimi, stile. https://esadir.cat/
Essentials of Linguistics: contrastive distribution and minimal pairs https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/4-3-contrastive-distribution-and-minimal-pairs/
Essentials of Linguistics: countability and classifiers https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/7-7-countability/
Essentials of Linguistics: functional categories https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/functional-categories/
Essentials of Linguistics: language varies https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/10-2-language-varies/
Essentials of Linguistics: stress https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/3-11-stress/
Essentials of Linguistics: syllables https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/3-10-syllables/
Essentials of Linguistics: tone and intonation https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics2/chapter/3-12-tone-and-intonation/
Ethnologue — Kannada. Speaker numbers, regions, and status. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kan/
Ethnologue — Romanian. Speaker numbers, regions, and status. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ron/
Ethnologue — Somali. Speaker numbers, regions, and the Maay/Standard distinction. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/som/
Ethnologue — Sundanese (sun). Speaker estimates and status; also lists Baduy Sundanese (bac) and Old Sundanese (osn). https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sun/
Ethnologue — Tamil. Speaker numbers, regions, and status. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tam/
Ethnologue — Tongan. Speaker numbers, regions, and status. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ton/
Ethnologue (free edition): Khakas (kjh) — endangerment status, universal bilingualism, school and media use, 2009 New Testament translation. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kjh/
Ethnologue (SIL International). “Portuguese (por) — language profile.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Confirms Portuguese as Indo-European, official national language of Portugal, used as a medium of instruction. Referenced for status framing. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/por/
Ethnologue: Umbundu (umb). Estatuto, número e distribuição de falantes. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/umb/
Ethnologue. "Croatian (hrv)." Accessed July 2026. Source of the typological summary used here: SVO basic order, prepositions, noun-final head pattern; seven grammatical cases; three genders; absence of articles; perfective/imperfective aspect with causative and comparative morphology; statutory status under Article 12.1 of the 1990 Constitution; literacy figures and the "fully developed" classification; and the nesting of Croatian under the Serbo-Croatian macrolanguage code hbs. The macrolanguage framing is a catalogue decision and is itself disputed; it is reported here, not endorsed. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hrv/
European Union. Official languages of the EU. Croatian became the 24th official language of the European Union on Croatia's accession in 2013. Corroborated in this build by a single caution-tier source; the accession date itself is not in dispute. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/languages_en
Evan Kirshenbaum, "Representing IPA phonetics in ASCII" (1993, updated 2001), as documented in the eSpeak NG project's kirshenbaum.md (consonant/vowel feature tables read in full, 2026-07-16). Source of the Kirshenbaum column; note several letters (W, Y, R, L) have alternate ASCII-IPA meanings. https://github.com/espeak-ng/espeak-ng/blob/master/docs/phonemes/kirshenbaum.md
Everson, Michael, Alois Dicklberger, Karl Pentzlin, & Eveline Wandl-Vogt. Unicode proposal for Teuthonista phonetic characters (2011) — basis of the Latin Extended-E block (U+AB30–AB6F); support also spans Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement and Extended. Authors/date search-corroborated; exact L2 document number pending. https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAB30.pdf
Everson, Michael. "Proposal to encode 'Unifon' and other characters in the UCS." UC Berkeley Script Encoding Initiative / Universal Scripts Project, L2/12-138 = ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4262, 2012-04-29 — Bendix and the 1957 IATA decision, Malone's son, Ratz at Principia College, Culkin 1974–1993; §2 structure and small-caps casing; §3 encoding model and the 43-of-66 unification; §4 combining diacritics in Tolowa; §5 the Latin/Greek disunification argument with the Wells quotation; §6 the successive 40-letter alphabets and the Hupa (33), Karuk (26), Tolowa (30), Yurok (32) and 42-letter 'Indian Unifon' alphabets; §7.1–7.2 the character tables and values used here; Figure 8, the Evertype Alice title; administrative form (incomplete proposal). https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12138-n4262-unifon.pdf
Everyday greetings (sain nio?, baniha) from the Manchu phrasebook, Wikivoyage, reflecting modern teaching and Sanjiazi spoken usage. https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Manchu_phrasebook
Expat in Croatia. "Where to get your latest Croatian news." Accessed August 4, 2026, together with the Clozemaster intermediate-Croatian resource list and the Feedspot Croatia podcast directory. Used only for the identification of Croatian-language outlets and learner resources: HRT's Dnevnik on HRT1, HRT Vijesti, HRT Radio and its podcast archive, Jutarnji list and Večernji list as learner-usable news sources, and the learner podcast Let's Learn Croatian. Directory-tier sources, used for existence and description only. https://www.expatincroatia.com/croatian-news/
Expediente de investigación interno de LinguaCommons, «Mexican Spanish» (RESEARCH/Mexican-Spanish), compilado el 2026-07-17 con auditoría de calidad por fuente. Base de todas las afirmaciones sobre el español de México, incluidas las de fonología contrastiva y sistema de tratamiento. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mexi1248
extIPA chart (current). The 2015-revision chart as distributed. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPAChart2015.pdf
Fäeag Rotuạm: Rotuman Language Week booklet (NZ Ministry for Pacific Peoples, 2022). Alphabet, greetings, numbers, kinship and cultural context; the source of most phrases in this guide https://www.mpp.govt.nz/assets/2022-Pacific-Language-Weeks/Rotuman-Language-Week/Rotuman_Language_Educational_Booklet_2022.pdf
Family words in Telugu (Omniglot). The full kinship set in ISO 15919 — the age-marked distinctions in section 5 https://www.omniglot.com/language/kinship/telugu.htm
Fang Zhang, Wenjun Yu, and Hao Xu, "Effects of Learning Multiple Foreign Languages on Learners' Social Emotional Competence Development," SAGE Open (2025), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21582440241310323. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21582440241310323
Farzad Sharifian, "Globalisation and Developing Metacultural Competence in Learning English as an International Language," Multilingual Education 3, no. 7 (2013), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2191-5059-3-7. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2191-5059-3-7
Fehlen der Kasusflexion, Genus/Artikelsystem, die drei Konjugationen und essere/avere folgen der Standardreferenz: Luca Serianni, Grammatica italiana (Turin: UTET). https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/grammatica-italiana/
Ficha de Ethnologue para el español (spa) — datos de estatus y distribución. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/spa/
Fijian alphabet & pronunciation (Omniglot). the special consonant values https://www.omniglot.com/writing/fijian.htm
FirstVoices Cherokee. Plataforma comunitaria con grabaciones de audio de palabras y frases. Muy útil para exponerse a la pronunciación nativa. https://www.firstvoices.com/
FLAS/university Quechua programs & courses. see “Southern Quechua” for the Cusco-type standard https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Quechua
Folksprak on Omniglot. A short independent write-up and sample of an older Folkspraak dialect. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/folkspraak.htm
Folksprak-Wiki — Sample texts. The showcase sentences and the Babel / Lord's Prayer translations. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=sample_texts
Folksprak-Wiki, Conjugation — no person/number agreement; Proposal-1 forms for infinitive (-e), present (bare stem), preterite (-de/-ede), perfect (hav + participle), future (vil/skal + infinitive), imperative (stem), participles (-ende, -t/-et); the irregular 'to be' with root ver- (present er, preterite var); and lat os spisa 'let us eat'. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=conjugation
Folksprak-Wiki, De Tormbu at Babel — the Tower of Babel translation quoted in §8, illustrating the older, more German-influenced orthography. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=de_tormbu_at_babel
Folksprak-Wiki, Ons Fater — the Lord's Prayer translation quoted in §8. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=ons_fater
Folksprak-Wiki, Phonology and Orthography — the settled consonant letters (incl. ng, dropped th, provisional C for sh), the a/e/i/o/u plus ö/ü vowels with höra and syd, the loose pronunciation allowance, and the competing vowel-length schemes. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=phonology_and_orthography
Folksprak-Wiki, Pronouns — the definite article de and indefinite article en (undeclined, en singular only, indefinite plural drops the article); the wiki keeps personal-pronoun tables on the main project site. https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php?id=pronouns
Folksprak-Wiki, start page (folksprak.org) — Folksprak as an inter-Germanic zonal auxlang understandable to Germanic-language speakers (465M+ native), the showcase sentence „Ek hav skrivt en buk“, the collective/multi-proposal nature of the project, and the single showcase sentences quoted in §7 (Man find fir rumer…, Vi hav nit nok tid…, Ek hav hoyrt…, Folksprak ar en sprak…). https://folksprak.org/wiki/doku.php
Foochow Romanized（平话字）. 平话字拼音系统的完整说明。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foochow_Romanized
Fortescue, Michael D. Comparative Nivkh Dictionary. Munich: Lincom Europa, 2016. ISBN 978-3-86288-687-6. Cross-variety lexicon and Proto-Nivkh reconstruction; the three-language analysis (Amur, East Sakhalin, South Sakhalin). Consulted via the in-repo dossier and Glottolog. https://glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/548829
Fortescue, Michael. "The Relationship of Nivkh to Chukotko-Kamchatkan Revisited." Lingua 121, no. 8 (2011): 1359–1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001. The most serious external-relations proposal, judged insufficient by Glottolog. Recorded here with the other unaccepted proposals (Nikolaev's Algic–Wakashan papers, Greenberg's Eurasiatic, Hudson & Robbeets's Koreanic-substratum conjecture). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001
Forvo — Arabic pronunciations. مادری بولنے والوں کی آواز — مفخّم اور حلقی آوازوں کے لیے مفید۔ https://forvo.com/languages/ar/
Forvo — Georgian pronunciations. Native audio for words and the tricky ejectives. https://forvo.com/languages/ka/
Forvo — Hindi pronunciations. মাতৃভাষীর উচ্চারণ — श/स পার্থক্যের জন্য উপযোগী। https://forvo.com/languages/hi/
Forvo — Kazakh pronunciations. Native audio for individual words, including the throat consonants. https://forvo.com/languages/kk/
Forvo — Kurdish pronunciations. Native-speaker audio for individual words. https://forvo.com/languages/ku/
Forvo — Kyrgyz pronunciations. Native audio, useful for ң, ө and ү and for vowel harmony. https://forvo.com/languages/ky/
Forvo — Pashto pronunciations. Native audio, helpful for the retroflex consonants and dialect differences. https://forvo.com/languages/ps/
Forvo — Persian pronunciations. مادری بولنے والوں کی آواز — ایرانی تلفظ اور مجہول حرکات کے لیے مفید۔ https://forvo.com/languages/fa/
Forvo — Tagalog pronunciations. Native audio, useful for ng, the glottal stop and stress placement. https://forvo.com/languages/tl/
Forvo — Turkmen pronunciations. Native audio, useful for vowel length and the "th" pronunciation of s and z. https://forvo.com/languages/tk/
Forvo — Urdu pronunciations. মাতৃভাষীর উচ্চারণ — ق, ع, غ ধ্বনির জন্য উপযোগী। https://forvo.com/languages/ur/
Forvo — Uzbek pronunciations. Native-speaker audio for individual words, useful for the q, x and gʻ sounds. https://forvo.com/languages/uz/
Four Counties 四邑（部落格）. 基礎課程、數字與常用句的整理。 http://taishanese.blogspot.com/
Frances Karttunen, An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl. the standard dictionary https://www.worldcat.org/title/analytical-dictionary-of-nahuatl/oclc/9686727
Francis, David A. & Leavitt, Robert M. (2008). A Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Dictionary / Peskotomuhkati Wolastoqewi Latuwewakon. Orono: University of Maine Press. Begun in the 1970s by linguist Philip S. LeSourd with the Indian Township bilingual-education program (dir. Wayne A. Newell); ~18,000 entries. https://pmportal.org/sites/default/files/reference-documents/Intro%20for%20Portal.pdf
Free Bengali learning portals. Script charts, basic vocabulary and phrases. https://www.mylanguages.org/learn_bengali.php
FSI Cantonese. a free government-produced course. Solid audio content & structured lessons, but uses Yale exclusively & has a dated interface. A strong free option. https://www.livelingua.com/fsi/Cantonese/
Gaj's Latin alphabet — the 30-grapheme, near one-letter-one-phoneme Latin orthography used for Croatian. Accessed July 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaj%27s_Latin_alphabet
Galt Museum & Archives, Blackfoot Language Book: Niitsi'powahsin (Lethbridge: Galt Museum & Archives, 2024), with language content by Julius Delaney, Blaise Russell, Wilma Spearchief and Camina Weasel Moccasin, PDF. https://www.galtmuseum.com/s/Blackfoot_language_book_web.pdf
Geert Booij, ‘On the Representation of Diphthongs in Frisian,’ Journal of Linguistics 25, no. 2 (1989): 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022226700014122
Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (GPC) — University of Wales Dictionary. the standard historical dictionary of Welsh, free online https://geiriadur.ac.uk/
genki.japantimes.co.jp. El manual universitario de japonés más usado en el mundo fuera de Japón. Diseñado para principiantes, cubre los dos primeros años universitarios y lleva al nivel JLPT N4–N3. Existe versión con explicaciones en inglés; muchos hispanohablantes lo usan con un diccionario bilingüe. genki.japantimes.co.jp https://genki.japantimes.co.jp/
German with Jenny (YouTube). 문법을 체계적으로 설명하는 영어 기반 강의. 격 변화·동사 활용 설명이 명확합니다. ※영어 진행 https://www.youtube.com/@GermanWithJenny
Global Storybooks Spanish. CC BY 4.0; pan-Hispanic, not evidence of Mexican-specific usage. https://global-asp.github.io/storybooks-spanish/
Glosa Basic Reference — recommended word order (subject, negation, modal, verb, indirect object, direct object) including in subordinate clauses; the pronoun set mi/tu/fe/an/id/na/vi/mu plus pe, se, auto, alelo; numeral placement (tri feli vs u feli tri); modal particles pote/posi/nece/debi/volu; question particles qe and qo; and the examples Fe ki ad urba, Qe fe ki ad urba?, Qo acide?, Tu pa vide qo-pe?, Qo-ka fe pa ki ad urba? and lave se. https://glosa.fias.fr/glosa/en/gref
Glosa Education Organisation. The maintaining body: history, texts and contact for the Glosa community. https://glosa.fias.fr/
Glosa grammar (glosa.org/en/gramm.htm) - the isolating design, the preposition set (place, time and relationship prepositions), and word formation by hyphen-compounding of unchanged roots, including the -pe/-fe/-an person markers. http://www.glosa.org/en/gramm.htm
Glosa Internet Dictionary, Glosa–English "Core" (Centra) list — the canonical Glosa-1000 vocabulary; every deck term and gloss is drawn from it. http://www.glosa.org/gid/coglen.htm
Glosa Vocabulary overview (Glosa Education Organisation) — description of the Centra/Basi/Mega dictionary levels and the Glosa-1000 concept. http://www.glosa.org/gid/
Glosa Vocabulary. The project's lexicon https://glosa.fias.fr/glosa/gid/
Glosbe English–Amharic dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences and Fidäl. https://glosbe.com/en/am
Glosbe English–Burmese dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/my
Glosbe English–Hausa dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/ha
Glosbe English–Shona dictionary. Searchable dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/sn
Glosbe English–Xhosa dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/xh
Glosbe English–Yorùbá dictionary. Dictionary with examples and audio. https://glosbe.com/en/yo
Glosbe español–aymara. Diccionario con ejemplos. https://glosbe.com/es/ay
Glosbe magyar-torok. Ketnyelvu szotar peldamondatokkal. https://hu.glosbe.com/hu/tr
Glosbe Nederlands–Xhosa woordenboek. Woordenboek met voorbeeldzinnen. https://glosbe.com/nl/xh
Glosbe Türkçe-Kazakça. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/kk
Glosbe Türkçe-Kirgizca. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/ky
Glosbe Türkçe-Özbekçe. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/uz
Glosbe Türkçe-Türkmençe. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/tk
Glosbe हिन्दी–बांग्ला शब्दकोश. उदाहरण वाक्यों सहित शब्दकोश। https://glosbe.com/hi/bn
glosbe.com/pa/en. glosbe.com/pa/en — 含真实语料库例句的双语词典。 https://glosbe.com/pa/en
Glottolog — Nuclear Kannada (nucl1305). Classification and linked descriptive resources. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1305
Glottolog — Romanian (roma1327). Classification and linked descriptive resources. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/roma1327
Glottolog — Tigrinya (tigr1271). Classification and linked descriptive resources for Tigrinya. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/tigr1271
Glottolog (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology), languoid record for Lingua Franca Nova (ling1267). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ling1267
Glottolog (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology), languoid record for Lojban (lojb1234). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/lojb1234
Glottolog (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology). “Glottolog 5.3 — Brazilian Portuguese (braz1246) and Brazil-Portugal Portuguese (braz1247).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for the dialect-level glottocode braz1246 (Brazilian Portuguese) under the Portuguese node; a sister node braz1247 (Brazil-Portugal Portuguese) also exists. Confirmed Indo-European affiliation via Glottolog country/search listings. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/braz1246
Glottolog (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology). “Glottolog 5.3 — Portuguese (port1283).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for glottocode of the Portuguese language node (port1283) and ISO 639-3 = por. Classification section links to Agard 1984 for subclassification. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/port1283
Glottolog (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology). « Japanese (nucl1643) ». Classification du japonais au sein de la famille japonique ; identifiant ISO 639-3 jpn. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1643
Glottolog 5.2, "Blackfoot (siks1238)" — AES endangerment status, cross-checked against the Endangered Languages Project. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/siks1238
Glottolog 5.2, "Rotuman (rotu1241)," cross-checked against the Wikipedia article "Rotuman language" for the Churchward/Milner orthography comparison and the phonemic inventory tables. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/rotu1241
Glottolog 5.x: "Zarma-Kaado" (zarm1239) — classification (Songhay as an independent lineage), national-language status, EGIDS 4 (Educational). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/zarm1239
Glottolog 5.x: Khakas (khak1248) — classification Turkic > Common Turkic > South Siberian Turkic > Yenisei Turkic; statutory co-official status in Khakassia. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/khak1248
Glottolog 5.x: Tswana (tswa1253) — classification Atlantic-Congo > Bantu > Sotho-Tswana; official/national status in Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe; 2023 subclassification study noted. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/tswa1253
Glottolog catalogue entry for Toki Pona, Glottocode toki1239. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/toki1239
Glottolog-Eintrag für das Wienerische (vien1238) — Nachweis der Klassifikation als eigenständiger Languoid innerhalb des Bairischen. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vien1238
Glottolog, ‘Egyptian Arabic (egyp1253),’ Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, accessed 2026-08-04. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/egyp1253
Glottolog, ‘Western Frisian (west2354),’ Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, accessed 2026-07-26. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2354
Glottolog, “Scottish Gaelic (scot1245),” Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, accessed 2026-07-26. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/scot1245
Glottolog: Songhay family page (song1307) — rejection of the Nilo-Saharan hypothesis ("thoroughly dismantled by Nicolaï"); trade-language/creole hypothesis discussed in the SIL survey (Nicolaï 1979; Eberle 1996). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/song1307
GMA / ABS-CBN News (Filipino). Berita dan televisi dalam bahasa Filipino untuk menyimak bahasa nyata. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/
Goethe-Institut. A nemet nyelv es kultura hivatalos intezmenye; vizsgak es anyagok. https://www.goethe.de/
goethe.de/br. Com sedes em São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Curitiba e Salvador. Cursos presenciais e online, exames oficiais. goethe.de/br https://www.goethe.de/ins/br/pt/index.html
goethe.de/it. La massima autorità per l'apprendimento del tedesco. Sedi a Roma, Milano, Napoli, Palermo, Torino, Genova, Trieste e Firenze. Offre corsi dall'A1 al C2 e gli esami Goethe-Zertifikat riconosciuti in tutto il mondo. goethe.de/it https://www.goethe.de/ins/it/it/index.html
goethe.de/pt. A principal autoridade para o ensino do alemão. A sede em Lisboa oferece cursos do A1 ao C2 e os exames Goethe-Zertifikat reconhecidos em todo o mundo. goethe.de/pt https://www.goethe.de/ins/pt/pt/index.html
Göksel, Aslı & Celia Kerslake, Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 2005) — mô tả tham khảo về hòa âm nguyên âm và hệ thống cách. https://www.routledge.com/Turkish-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Goksel-Kerslake/p/book/9780415214261
Gombé-Apondza, « Particularités phonétiques du français dans la presse audio-visuelle de Kinshasa » : corpus d'environ cent items de parole radiophonique et télévisée kinoise, transcriptions IPA des substitutions par postériorisation et délabialisation de [y], inventaires vocaliques comparés du français, du lingala et du kikongo-kituba. https://gerflint.fr/Base/Afrique_GrandsLacs4/gombe_apondza.pdf
Google Translate. useful for quick lookups; Cantonese quality is inconsistent. https://translate.google.com/
Gothic as an extinct East Germanic language and the only one with a sizeable corpus; Wulfila's 4th-century translation and alphabet; the Codex Argenteus; the dual number marked on pronouns and verbs; the inherited morphological passive and its absence elsewhere in Germanic; strong, weak and reduplicating verbs; thematic conjugation compared with Latin and Greek; the stem-based declensions; the demonstrative sa as article; the ƕ- < *kʷ correspondence; the þl < fl change; Grimm's acute-accent convention; and the Gothic Lord's Prayer. See “Gothic language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_language
Gothic core vocabulary, pronouns (including the dual wit/jut), numbers and verbs, from the Wulfila Bible corpus. See Joseph Wright, Grammar of the Gothic Language (Oxford), and the Wulfila Project online corpus. https://www.wulfila.be/
Gourdol, Arno. "Tecendil: Tengwar Handbook." — Tengwar is a script and not a language; modes as per-language convention sets; the témar/tyeller summary including the tyelpetéma; extended ando as the English abbreviation for "the". https://www.tecendil.com/tengwar-handbook/
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General. Census of India 2011: Language — Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues. New Delhi, 2018. The census figures underlying the speaker counts cited above. https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables
Governor of the Special Region of Yogyakarta. Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa (Regional Regulation 2 of 2021 on the maintenance and development of the Javanese language, literature and script). https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021
Graham Mallinson, 'Rumanian', in The Romance Languages, ed. Martin Harris & Nigel Vincent (London: Routledge, 1988), sezioni su articolo e caso. https://www.routledge.com/The-Romance-Languages/Harris-Vincent/p/book/9780415161176
Greetings (Akkam, Nagaa, Gaarii, Galatoomi, Akkam bulte) and the cardinal numerals (tokko, lama, sadii, afur, shan, jaha, torba, saddeet, sagal, kudhan) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Oromia Language & Cultural Academy. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/oromo.htm
Greetings (ʻIa ora na, Māuruuru, ʻE, ʻAita, Nana/Pārahi) and the cardinal numerals (hōʻē, piti, toru, maha, pae, ono, hitu, vaʻu, iva, ʻahuru) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Académie Tahitienne; spellings of the ʻeta and macron follow Académie usage and are flagged for community review. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tahitian.htm
Greetings (Ndeewo, Kedụ, Ọ dị mma, Daalụ, Biko, Ee, Mba, Ndo) and the cardinal numerals (otu, abụọ, atọ, anọ, ise, isii, asaa, asatọ, itoolu, iri) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Harvard ELIAS Igbo materials. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/igbo.php
Greetings (Wáa sá i yatee?) and numerals from the Tlingit phrase book Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá! = Say It in Tlingit (tlingitlanguage.com) and the Chilkat Indian Village phrase list. https://tlingitlanguage.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Lingit-xh_einaxh-Sa.pdf
Greetings, courtesy phrases and the numerals one to ten from “Useful phrases in Livonian,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/livonian.htm
Greetings, courtesy phrases, self-introduction forms and the Polish-influenced orthography from “Useful phrases in Wymysorys,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/wymsorys.htm
Grimm's Law (PIE p,t,k → PGmc f,þ,h; b,d,g → p,t,k; bʰ,dʰ,gʰ → b,d,g) and Verner's Law, the basis of Proto-Germanic reconstruction. See 'Proto-Germanic language' and 'Grimm's law', Wikipedia; and Donald Ringe, From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (OUP, 2006). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%27s_law
Gruzdeva, Ekaterina, and Anna Bugaeva. "A unique linguistic text in Nivkh by A. A. Yushkina." Journal of Ainu and Indigenous Studies, 2021. Publishes a Nivkh-authored text; the source association for the attested greeting passage in Reader 1. PDF not opened for this guide. https://iling-ran.ru/languages_of_russia/2021_stage1/doc5_appendix4.pdf
Gruzdeva, Ekaterina. Nivkh. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1998. ISBN 3-89586-039-5. The modern sketch grammar and the source of the two-language analysis (Nivkh proper vs. Nighvng). See also her "Aspects of Russian-Nivkh Grammatical Interference: The Nivkh Imperative" (2000) and "The Linguistic Consequences of Nivkh Language Attrition" (SKY Journal of Linguistics 15, 2002). Consulted via the in-repo dossier. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004488472_012
GTRK Khakasia — regional TV/radio with Khakas-language programming. Broadcast register; news segments in Khakas. https://gtrk19.ru/
Guarani Ñe'ẽ (recursos e dicionários). Portal de Wolf Lustig com gramática, textos e dicionários de guarani. https://www.guarani.de/
guidetojapanese.org. Gramática japonesa completa y gratuita en inglés, con un enfoque diferente al de los libros de texto convencionales. Muy valorada por aprendices avanzados que quieren entender la lógica profunda del japonés. guidetojapanese.org https://guidetojapanese.org/
Gujarati Wikipedia (ગુજરાતી વિકિપીડિયા). A free, continuously updated corpus of plain-register written Gujarati, used here as the recommended reading step above graded texts. https://gu.wikipedia.org/
Gunther Wagner, “Yuchi grammar,” in Handbook of American Indian Languages vol. 3 (1938), as summarised in “Yuchi language,” Wikipedia — SOV agglutinative structure; animate/inanimate noun classification and shape classes; pronoun series with inclusive/exclusive and gendered registers; tense/aspect/mood suffixes; locative prefixes and suffixes; negation and interrogative suffixes. Some of Wagner's analyses have been disputed by later scholars (Ballard 1978; Speck 1939). https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_tqw_morsyn-2/page/292/mode/2up
HABE. La red oficial de escuelas de euskera y sus materiales de autoaprendizaje. https://www.habe.euskadi.eus/
Halm, Robert, and Jay Slater. "Application of the Comparative Method to Nivkh: Other Regular Sound Correspondences." Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 39 (2018). https://doi.org/10.17161/1808.27627. Open-access comparative work on the regular correspondences between the varieties; confirms at least two and possibly three mutually unintelligible varieties. https://doi.org/10.17161/1808.27627
Hamidou, Seydou Hanafiou. Arrêté n°0215/MEN/SP-CNRE du 19 octobre 1999 fixant l'orthographe de la langue soŋay-zarma. Niamey: Département de linguistique et des langues nationales, IRSH, Université Abdou Moumouni, 1999 — the official Latin orthography, incl. the tilde-under-vowel nasal convention. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarma_language#Writing_systems
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. "Glottolog — Breton." Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Accessed July 17, 2026. Display name Breton, alternative name Brezhoneg, ISO 639-3 bre, Glottocode bret1244, country France. Source also of the internally inconsistent vitality record noted in section 1: the page shows an AES heading of "not endangered" while its cited comment reports "At risk" with low certainty from a 2012 source. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/bret1244
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. "Glottolog — Croatian." Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Accessed July 2026. Classification within Indo-European → Balto-Slavic → Slavic → South Slavic → West South Slavic, and treatment of Croatian as a languoid in its own right. https://glottolog.org/
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. “Glottolog — Ket.” Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. ISO 639-3 ket, Glottocode kett1243, AES “shifting.” RESEARCH/Ket/language-profile.md [K01], direct-read 2026-07-17.
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. "Glottolog — Mapudungun." Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Accessed 2026. Glottocode mapu1245; ISO 639-3 arn; classification within the Araucanian family (arau1255) with family-membership references Adelaar & Muysken 2004 and Adelaar & Pache 2022; autonym and the exonyms Araucanian, Araucano and Auca; AES status 'shifting' and 'Threatened (40 percent certain, based on the evidence available)', with the comment that a strong decline in intergenerational transfer has taken place, sourced to Crevels 2012 via ELCat. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mapu1245
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. “Glottolog — Ojibwa.” Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. ISO 639-3 macrolanguage code oj; family Algonquian. RESEARCH/Ojibwe/language-profile.md, direct-read 2026-07-17.
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. “Glottolog — Samoan.” Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Glottocode samo1305. RESEARCH/Samoan/sources.json [S01], direct-read 2026-08-06.
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. "Glottolog 5.3 — Nivkh." Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Accessed August 4, 2026. Glottocode nivk1234; one-member family; family-membership reference Fortescue 2016; comment on Chukotko-Kamchatkan parallels as "insufficient." https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nivk1234
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. “Gujarati (guja1252).” Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Genealogical classification within Western Indo-Aryan and the ISO 639-3 code guj. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/guja1252
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel, Martin Haspelmath, and Sebastian Bank, eds. “Sundanese (sund1252).” Glottolog 5.3. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Accessed 4 August 2026. See also Eberhard, Simons and Fennig, eds., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 27th ed. (Dallas: SIL International, 2024), entries for Sundanese (sun), Baduy Sundanese (bac) and Old Sundanese (osn). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sund1252
hamnosys LaTeX package on CTAN: Unicode font and multiple input methods for XeLaTeX and LuaLaTeX. https://ctan.org/pkg/hamnosys
Hanke, Thomas. "HamNoSys — Representing Sign Language Data in Language Resources and Language Processing Contexts." Proceedings of the LREC2004 Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Sign Languages, 1–6. Paris: ELRA, 2004. https://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/lrec/pub/04001.html
Hanks, William F. “Birth of a Language: The Formation and Spread of Colonial Yucatec Maya.” Journal of Anthropological Research 68, no. 4 (2012): 449–471; and Converting Words: Maya in the Age of the Cross. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. The source for reducción and Maya reducido. https://doi.org/10.3998/jar.0521004.0068.401
Hans Schmidt, "Metathesis in Rotuman". The technical account of the phase system, with the comparative and phrase-level tables used above http://www.hawaii.edu/oceanic/rotuma/os/Temathesis%20in%20Rotuman.pdf
Hansen & Quinn, Greek: An Intensive Course. fast, grammar-first, thorough drills https://www.fordhampress.com/9780823216635/greek-an-intensive-course/
Hardjadibrata, R. R. Sundanese: A Syntactical Analysis. Pacific Linguistics D-65. Canberra: Australian National University, 1985, p. 30. The source of the three-way general preposition analysis (di, ka, ti) and their specific counterparts. https://doi.org/10.15144/PL-D65
Harrison, Byron, Annette Renée Harrison, and Michael J. Rueck. Southern Songhay Speech Varieties in Niger: A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Zarma, Songhay, Kurtey, Wogo, and Dendi Peoples of Niger. SIL Electronic Survey Report 1999-004. Niamey: SIL, 1997 — speaker extrapolation (~1.4M, Niger) and ethnolinguistic-label fieldwork. https://www.sil.org/resources/abstract/9068
Harvard Geoffrey Chaucer Website. texts, glosses and audio of Chaucer's Middle English https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/
Hausa overview. Background on tone, gender and the Boko script. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_language
Helge K. Fauskanger, Ardalambion — Quenya: the Complete Course and the wordlist 'Quettaparma Quenyallo' (University of Bergen personal site; ardalambion.org). Each entry is referenced to its primary Tolkien source; used here to verify the guide's grammar tables and deck.
Heli Chatelain, Grammatica elementar do Kimbundu ou lingua de Angola (Genebra: Typ. de Charles Schuchardt, 1888-89). Dominio publico. https://archive.org/details/kimbundugrammar00chatgoog
Herzog, George, Stanley S. Newman, Edward Sapir, Mary Haas Swadesh, Morris Swadesh, & Charles F. Voegelin. "Some orthographic recommendations." American Anthropologist 36(4), 1934: 629–631 — fully cited anchor; recommendations, not a binding standard. https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.1934.36.4.02a00300
Hieronymus, James L. "ASCII Phonetic Symbols for the World's Languages: Worldbet." AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, c. 1993 (date derivable: the memo notes the IPA's '105 years' since 1888 = 1993). Read Run 5 (body + Tables 1–2). Anchors: ASCII IPA + broad-phonetic symbols for all languages; one base symbol per spectrally/temporally distinct phonemic sound; fixed two-character baseforms (~2,900 possible, ~299 used, one char may be a space); vowels = letters + numerals 2–8; diphthongs = concatenated endpoints; linking '-' for double articulations; explicit critique of SAMPA reusing symbols for different /r/; corpora TIMIT/SCRIBE/BDSONS/PHONDAT; coverage checked vs UPSID/Maddieson. http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~frank/csc401/readings/worldbet.pdf
Historical record: founding of the Association (Paris, 1886, around Paul Passy) and the chart revision chain (Kiel Convention 1989; 1993/1996 refinements; 2005; 2015). The 2005→2015 relationship and the Kiel click/group symbols are verified via the official chart page [1]; the earlier chain is standard history. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/
Historisches Lexikon Bayerns — Dialekte. wissenschaftlicher Überblick (Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften) https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/EN:Bavarian_Dialects
History Behind Glosa (Glosa Education Organisation) — Ronald Clark's discovery of Interglossa around 1960, contact with and encouragement from Hogben, and Wendy Ashby joining the project in 1972. Self-reported project history. https://glosa.fias.fr/glosa/en/history.pdf
HIVE — Guide for WoW Languages. Community compilation of Warcraft language corpora across races — breadth reference. https://www.hiveworkshop.com/pastebin/0533a888904bd4867929dffd884d60b8.1799
Hiwwe wie Driwwe — The Pennsylvania German Newspaper (hiwwe-wie-driwwe.com), gegründet von Michael Werner — die Mundartzeitung der ≈100 aktiven Deitsch-Autoren, seit 2002 gedruckt und online erscheinend; als externe Bestätigung der lebendigen Schriftkultur herangezogen (abgerufen 2026-07-03). https://hiwwe-wie-driwwe.com/
Hokkien 概览. — 了解方言分布与音系。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien
How the Shorthand was Introduced among the Indians (Le Jeune, ed. Poser). Le Jeune's own account of Mayous and the spread of the script, in the Northwest Journal of Linguistics https://www.sfu.ca/nwjl/Articles/V005_N03/LejeunePoserWawa.html
How to count in Tamazight (Languages and Numbers). native numerals https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-tamazight/en/tzm/
Howard I. Aronson, Georgian: A Reading Grammar, corrected ed. (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1990), Introduction; on the Fereydani Georgians cf. 'Georgia ii: History of Iranian-Georgian Relations,' Encyclopaedia Iranica. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-ii-history
Howard I. Aronson, Georgian: A Reading Grammar, corrected ed. (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1990), on the ergative ("narrative") case in the aorist series. https://www.slavica.com/
HRT — Hrvatska radiotelevizija. Television, radio and a large podcast archive. Dnevnik HRT is the standard evening news; studio narration makes it good listening practice. https://www.hrt.hr/
Hrvatski jezični portal（在线词典/语料）. 克罗地亚语在线词典与词形。 https://hjp.znanje.hr/
https://ling-app.com/ https://ling-app.com/
https://seedlang.com/ https://seedlang.com/
https://storylearning.com/ https://storylearning.com/
https://www.innovativelanguage.com/ https://www.innovativelanguage.com/
https://www.memrise.com/ https://www.memrise.com/
https://www.renshuu.org/ https://www.renshuu.org/
https://www.vocab.ai/hypertts https://www.vocab.ai/hypertts
https://www.youtube.com/@EasyLanguages https://www.youtube.com/@EasyLanguages
ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola. Authentic listening input from contemporary Hawaiian-language broadcasting. https://aha.fm/
ICPLA — International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association. The steward organization; chart downloads. https://icpla.info/
Idioma galés (visión general). clasificación, historia, estado https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_gal%C3%A9s
Ido language research dossier, drawing on Louis de Beaufront’s Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza and documented examples. https://www.ido.li/
iGuarani (dicionário online). Dicionário guarani-espanhol-português com conjugador. https://www.iguarani.com/
Ikasten.io. Official Basque-government self-study platforms and the euskaltegi (Basque-school) system. https://www.ikasten.io/
Il basco (euskara) è una lingua isolata (senza parenti noti), parlata da ~750.000 persone nei Paesi Baschi spagnoli e francesi; lo standard è l’Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vedi « Lingua basca ». https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_basca
Indigenous-language online dictionary. Searchable dictionaries for Formosan languages (interface mostly in Chinese). https://e-dictionary.ilrdf.org.tw/
Indonesische uitdrukkingen (Omniglot). Veelgebruikte zinnen met uitspraak. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/indonesian.php
INEGI, language statistics from Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020, accessed 2026-08-04. Used for multilingual national context, not a total Spanish-speaker count. https://www.inegi.org.mx/temas/lengua/
Infopédia — Dicionário Espanhol-Português (Porto Editora). Dicionário Espanhol-Português (Porto Editora) todos os níveis — Dicionário bilingue fiável de uma editora portuguesa de referência. https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/espanhol-portugues
Infopédia: autocarro. Consultation route for Portugal-oriented transport vocabulary; not bulk-extracted. https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/autocarro
Inject Jyutping. overlays Jyutping romanization on Chinese characters in-browser. https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/inject-jyutping/
Inspirlang. Jade Jia Ying Wu offers private lessons independently. More expensive than iTalki/Preply, but valuable for advanced learners or those with specific interest in Taishanese. She is also the author of the Learn to Speak Cantonese beginner series (Volumes I & II). https://www.inspirlang.com/
Institut d'Estudis Catalans, Gramatica de la llengua catalana (Barcelona: IEC, 2016). https://giec.iec.cat/
Institut za hrvatski jezik (Institute for the Croatian Language). The state-run body responsible for standardisation and normative guidance; its Hrvatski pravopis received sole Ministry of Education approval in 2013. Accessed July 2026. https://ihjj.hr/
institutfrancais-brasil.com. Com sedes em São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Recife, Salvador e Brasília. Cursos presenciais e online, exames DELF/DALF. institutfrancais-brasil.com https://www.institutfrancais-brasil.com/
institutfrancais-portugal.com. A rede cultural oficial da França em Portugal, com sede em Lisboa. Oferece cursos do A1 ao C2, certificações DELF/DALF e eventos culturais. institutfrancais-portugal.com https://www.institutfrancais-portugal.com/
institutfrancais.com. Red cultural oficial de Francia en el exterior, con programación cultural y recursos para hispanohablantes. institutfrancais.com https://www.institutfrancais.com/
institutfrancais.de. Das offizielle Kulturinstitut Frankreichs in Deutschland, mit Standorten in Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg, München, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf und Freiburg. Sprachkurse aller Niveaus (A1–C2), DELF/DALF-Prüfungsvorbereitung und Kulturprogramm. institutfrancais.de https://www.institutfrancais.de/
institutfrancais.it. Rete culturale ufficiale della Francia in Italia, con sedi a Torino, Milano, Roma, Napoli e Palermo. Offre corsi, certificazioni DELF/DALF (A1–C2) e numerosi eventi culturali. institutfrancais.it https://www.institutfrancais.it/
Instituto Caro y Cuervo. Colombia's national institute for Spanish language and literature; publisher of the Diccionario de colombianismos https://www.caroycuervo.gov.co/
Instituto Cervantes / AVE Global. L'ente ufficiale per la lingua spagnola, con corsi strutturati per livello. https://www.cervantes.es/
Instituto Cervantes de Lisboa. Cursos oficiais de espanhol e exames DELE em Portugal. https://lisboa.cervantes.es/
Instituto Cervantes practical guide. Institutional Spanish reference route. https://cervantes.org/es/sobre-nosotros/publicaciones/guia-practica-espanol-correcto
Instituto Cervantes, ‘Catálogo de voces hispánicas: España, Madrid,’ accessed 2026-08-04. Its observations are retained as Madrid scope, not a description of all Spain. https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/voces_hispanicas/espana/madrid.htm
Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI). Norma de escritura de la lengua maya. Mexico City: INALI, 2014. The official orthographic norm this deck's spelling follows, via Wiktionary's adoption of it. Cited from the LinguaCommons in-repo Yucatec Maya research dossier; the PDF itself has not been read at page level. https://www.inali.gob.mx/
Institutul Limbii Romane. Istituto ufficiale per la promozione del rumeno; materiali e certificazioni. https://www.ilr.ro/
Intermediate Khmer — Michigan State University (Open Books). A free continuation course for learners past the basics. https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/intermediatekhmer/
International Journal of American Linguistics, author guidelines — "a footnote to the first cited form should explain any deviation from common Americanist or IPA usage"; living parallel practice. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/journals/ijal/instruct
International Phonetic Association, "Full IPA Chart," official chart page — 2015 chart and its relation to the 2005 revision; three sanctioned fonts (IPA Kiel, Doulos SIL, DejaVu Sans) with per-font defects; CC-BY-SA 3.0 licensing since July 2012; chart region structure. Fetched live during the LinguaCommons research pass, 2026-07-16. https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart
International Phonetic Association, Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) — principles, symbol definitions, /…/ vs […] usage, and the per-language "Illustrations of the IPA." https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/handbook-of-the-international-phonetic-association/E390E1B4074A2ABA1E7B6FBF5CDBB1E6
interslavic-language.org, accessed July 4, 2026. The official project portal maintaining the unified Interslavic standard, grammar and news. http://www.interslavic-language.org/
IRCAM — Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture. standard, grammars, curricula https://www.ircam.ma/
Irvine: Style as distinctiveness https://assets.cambridge.org/0521591910/sample/0521591910WS.pdf
isiXhosa overview. Background on clicks, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_language
isiZulu overview. Orientation to clicks, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_language
isiZulu.net. Excellent dictionnaire zulu–anglais en ligne avec conjugaisons. https://isizulu.net/
ISO 639-3 code tok for Toki Pona, adopted 20 January 2022; basis for the IETF/BCP-47 subtag. https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tok
it.pons.com. Dizionario tedesco-italiano — Dizionario online completo con esempi d'uso, coniugazioni e audio. Ottimo per verificare generi e casi. it.pons.com https://it.pons.com/traduzione/tedesco-italiano
Italienisch ist eine romanische indogermanische Sprache mit rund 65 Millionen Muttersprachlern, Amtssprache in Italien, San Marino, der Vatikanstadt und Teilen der Schweiz. Siehe „Italienische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italienische_Sprache
iTalki. Заняття з носіями мови та професійними викладачами. Багато слов'яномовних викладачів іспанської. https://www.italki.com/referral?r=f0Fcbf
italki.com. La plataforma de referencia para encontrar tutores de japonés. Hay muchos profesores nativos que hablan español o tienen experiencia enseñando a hispanohablantes. La conversación regular con un nativo es el modo más rápido de integrar el ritmo, la entonación y las estructuras naturales. italki.com https://www.italki.com/
Ivanov, S. V., M. G. Levin, and A. V. Smolyak. "The Nivkhi." In The Peoples of Siberia, edited by M. G. Levin and L. P. Potapov. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Classic ethnographic reference (Soviet-era origin, read historically) for pre-contact trade with the Ainu, Japanese and Chinese, and for the effects of collectivization. https://press.uchicago.edu/
J. Richard Andrews, Introduction to Classical Nahuatl. standard textbook (revised edition) https://www.oupress.com/9780806138244/introduction-to-classical-nahuatl/
J.R.R. Tolkien, 'The Etymologies', in The Lost Road and Other Writings (The History of Middle-earth, Vol. V), ed. Christopher Tolkien (London: Unwin Hyman, 1987), 347–400. Root-by-root lexicon underlying most attested Quenya word-stems.
J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (London: Allen & Unwin, 1954–55; many later editions). Primary published Quenya: the poem Namárië and the greeting 'Elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo', with pronunciation and the Tengwar/Cirth in Appendices E and F.
J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendices E–F — primary source for the Cirth/Angerthas writing systems, pronunciation, the battle-cry and the Dwarves' outer-name custom (cited via the encyclopedic sources above). https://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Cirth
J.R.R. Tolkien, The Silmarillion, ed. Christopher Tolkien (London: Allen & Unwin, 1977). Source of much attested Quenya vocabulary and of the 'Appendix: Elements in Quenya and Sindarin Names'.
JACT, Reading Greek. the Joint Association of Classical Teachers' reading course https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/reading-greek/
James Neil Sneddon, The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2003), Introduction. https://unsw.press/
James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian. the standard modern textbook https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/middle-egyptian/
Jan van Steenbergen, “Interslavic grammar,” interslavic-language.org / steen.free.fr, accessed July 4, 2026. The reference grammar of Interslavic (Medžuslovjansky): the seven-case noun system, adjective and pronoun declension, the verb system (l-participle past, byti future, by conditional), aspect, and prepositions. http://steen.free.fr/interslavic/
Jangawolof. Cours et phrases de base en wolof, avec audio, pour débutants. https://jangawolof.org/
Jàngileen. Online Wolof lessons and vocabulary built by and for learners. https://www.jangileen.com/
Janhunen, Juha, and Ekaterina Gruzdeva. "Bringing the orthography of an indigenous language to the digital age: The case of Nivkh in the Russian Far East." In Proceedings of SCRIPTA 2016. Seoul, 2016. The modern treatment of Nivkh Cyrillic, its allographs (descender forms; breve vs. caron) and its digital-encoding problems, and the source for treating Нивх диф's choices as the reference standard. https://www.hangeul.or.kr/
Japan Foundation, «Survey Report on Japanese-Language Education Abroad 2021» (diakses 2026-07-03) — 711.732 pembelajar bahasa Jepang di Indonesia, peringkat ke-2 dunia setelah Tiongkok (1.057.318); total dunia ±3,79 juta pembelajar formal di 141 negara/wilayah. https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/japanese/survey/result/survey21.html
japanesepod101.com. Lecciones en audio y vídeo con explicaciones en inglés, organizadas por nivel desde N5 hasta N1. Su punto fuerte es el audio con diálogos nativos lentos y normales. Tiene versión gratuita con contenido limitado. japanesepod101.com https://www.japanesepod101.com/
japonestotal.com. El recurso en español más completo sobre japonés en internet. Explica gramática, escritura y vocabulario desde cero, en español, con ejercicios y lecciones estructuradas. Creado por Agustín Sanz, uno de los hispanohablantes con mayor nivel de japonés en la comunidad de aprendizaje. japonestotal.com https://www.japonestotal.com/
Jasmine Dum-Tragut, Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2009), Introduction. https://benjamins.com/catalog/loall.14
jdzb.de. Fördert den wissenschaftlichen und kulturellen Austausch zwischen Japan und Deutschland. Veranstaltungen, Stipendien und Ressourcen für Japanisch-Lernende. jdzb.de https://www.jdzb.de/
Jeju Talking Dictionary (Swarthmore). A Jejueo dictionary with audio; the best resource for checking pronunciation. http://talkingdictionary.swarthmore.edu/jeju/
Jelena Mihaljević Djigunović, "Language Learning Methodology for Adults: A Study of Linguistic Transfer," Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 142 (2014): 318–324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.641
Jing Wang and Rining Wei, "Is Bilingualism Linked to Well-Being? Evidence from a Big-Data Survey," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (2023), https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/is-bilingualism-linked-to-wellbeing-evidence-from-a-bigdata-survey/3B4033E84A8A3E1B320CE64625DCCD86. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/is-bilingualism-linked-to-wellbeing-evidence-from-a-bigdata-survey/3B4033E84A8A3E1B320CE64625DCCD86
jisho.org. Die beste kostenlose Online-Datenbank für Japanisch. Suche auf Englisch, aber mit japanisch-deutschen Übersetzungsabdeckung. Enthält JLPT-Niveau, Kanji-Details, Beispielsätze. jisho.org https://jisho.org/
jlpt.jp. Examen de Competencia en Japonés (日本語能力試験) — El examen oficial del japonés, gestionado por la Japan Foundation y el Japan Educational Exchanges and Services. Tiene cinco niveles: N5 (principiante) a N1 (avanzado). Se realiza en centros de examen en España, México, Argentina, Chile y otros países hispanohablantes dos veces al año. Es el estándar internacional de certificación. jlpt.jp https://www.jlpt.jp/e/about/index.html
John Butt & Carmen Benjamin, A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish, 5th ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), capitolele despre ser/estar si despre 'falsos amigos'. https://www.routledge.com/A-New-Reference-Grammar-of-Modern-Spanish/Butt-Benjamin/p/book/9781444137699
John Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian. the standard teaching grammar https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-922-7.html
John L. Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian Grammar and Texts. widely used teaching grammar https://www.worldcat.org/title/manual-of-sumerian-grammar-and-texts/oclc/44269284
John Whitlam and Agripino S. Silveira. “Modern Brazilian Portuguese Grammar Workbook, 3rd edition (Routledge, 2023).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for learner-resource documentation and attested classroom phrases (e.g., 'Pode soletrar, por favor?' = 'Can you spell that, please?'), and structure of a modern BP grammar course. https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781000790429_A43608352/preview-9781000790429_A43608352.pdf
Joseph Wright, A Middle High German Primer. classic primer, free on the Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/middlehighgerman00wrig
Joseph Wright, An Old High German Primer. classic primer, free on the Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/oldhighgermanpri00wriguoft
Jouitteau, Mélanie, ed. "Breton standard" and "Guide d'annotation de transcription." ARBRES, a participatory research grammar edited at the IKER research unit (CNRS / Université Bordeaux Montaigne / UPPA). Accessed July 17, 2026. The authority for this deck's orthographic policy: ARBRES describes several coexisting Breton orthographies and identifies the zh system (peurunvan) as the majority written standard, while using it as a transcription base that may be adapted where dialect data require it. https://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/index.php?title=Breton_standard
Jouitteau, Mélanie, ed. "Mutations consonantiques." ARBRES. Accessed July 17, 2026. Defines initial mutation as a change affecting a word-initial consonant and documents several series rather than one process; the standard-oriented table covers initial K, T, P, G, D, B, M and Gw and distinguishes lenition, spirantization, fortition, the mixed mutation and a reduced system. Also the basis for treating mutation as conditioned by lexical category and morphosyntactic environment. https://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/index.php?title=Mutations_consonantiques
Jouitteau, Mélanie, ed. "V2" and the associated matrix-clause pages. ARBRES. Accessed July 17, 2026. Analyses Breton matrix clauses as predominantly V2, with the finite or tense-bearing element in second position and the first constituent not required to be the subject, and contrasts this with embedded clauses described as frequently VSO. https://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/index.php?title=V2
Journal Teuthonista (Zeitschrift für deutsche Dialektforschung und Sprachgeschichte): the transcription system was presented in the journal in 1924/25, giving it its name. Foundational; 1924/25 origin search-corroborated 2026-07-16, article-level metadata pending. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teuthonista
jpf.go.jp/d/de. Die offizielle Kulturinstitution Japans in Deutschland mit Sitz in Köln. Bietet Sprachkurse, Bibliothek, kulturelle Veranstaltungen und Informationen zu JLPT-Prüfungszentren in Deutschland. jpf.go.jp/d/de https://www.jpf.go.jp/d/de/
Jubin Abutalebi and David W. Green, "Control Mechanisms in Bilingual Language Production: Neural Evidence from Functional Neuroimaging," Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19, no. 7 (2007): 557–584, https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701620226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701620226
Jubin Abutalebi et al., "The Organization of Multiple Languages in Polyglots: Interference or Independence?," Journal of Neurolinguistics 20, no. 1 (2007): 25–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.01.003. The author's draft supplied only the lead author; the remaining names and all bibliographic details are reproduced as given and not independently verified [UNVERIFIED]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.01.003
Judith F. Kroll and Erika Steinhauer, "Bilingual Brain Science: Language Control and the Co-activation of Languages," Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 28 (2008): 140–161, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508080070. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508080070
Juliana Franco. “The Sounds of Brazilian Portuguese and the Main Pitfalls for Non-Native Speakers.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used to cross-check vowel inventory (5 vowels, ~15 phonetic realizations; nasal vowels [ɐ̃ ẽ ĩ õ ũ]), epenthesis, final unstressed /o/ → [ʊ], /t,d/ palatalization, and /r/ realizations. Pedagogical (singers) framing. https://www.nats.org/_Library/ICVT_2022_Vienna_/Franco_MH_final.pdf
Jutarnji list. Daily newspaper, Zagreb, launched 1998. Extensive free online content across registers. https://www.jutarnji.hr/
Kabar / Ala-Too 24 (Kirgiz medyasi). Kirgiz haber ajansi: okuma ve güncel dil pratigi. https://kabar.kg/
Kaikki Spanish dictionary. Machine-readable English Wiktionary extraction; underlying content CC BY-SA/GFDL. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Spanish/index.html
kaikki.org — Ket machine-readable dictionary. Wiktextract extraction of English Wiktionary's Ket entries (692 word forms, 1,054 senses). Source for every headword and gloss in this deck. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Ket/
kaikki.org — Samoan dictionary. Wiktextract extraction of English Wiktionary's Samoan entries; source for the majority of this deck's headwords and glosses. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Samoan/
kaikki.org machine-readable Telugu dictionary, extracted by Tatu Ylonen's wiktextract on 2026-08-02 from the English Wiktionary dump of 2026-07-06 — pronouns, numerals and verb lemmas. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Telugu/index.html
kaikki.org. "Breton machine-readable dictionary." Machine-readable mirror of English Wiktionary generated with wiktextract; Breton pages generated 2026-08-02 from the enwiktionary dump of 2026-07-06. Accessed August 4, 2026. Direct source of every headword and gloss in this deck, harvested from the Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Numeral, Pronoun, Preposition, Conjunction, Article, Determiner, Particle, Interjection and Phrase range pages. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Breton/index.html
kaikki.org. “Ket machine-readable dictionary.” Wiktextract extraction of English Wiktionary's Ket entries, 692 word forms / 1,054 senses, generated 2026-08-05. Source for every headword and gloss on this guide's deck, direct-read 2026-08-15.
kaikki.org. "Mapudungun machine-readable dictionary." Machine-readable mirror of English Wiktionary generated with wiktextract; Mapudungun pages generated 2026-08-02 from the enwiktionary dump of 2026-07-06. Accessed August 4, 2026. Source of every row after the Unificado core block, harvested from the Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Numeral and Pronoun range pages. Its Mapudungun entries are written predominantly in the Raguileo alphabet. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Mapudungun/index.html
kaikki.org. "Nivkh machine-readable dictionary." Mirror of English Wiktionary generated with wiktextract; 696 word forms, data extracted 2026-08-02 from the enwiktionary dump of 2026-07-06. Accessed August 4, 2026. The direct source of every Cyrillic form in this guide's vocabulary tables and in the deck, other than the attested material quoted from the dossier. Reference tier: community-edited. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Nivkh/index.html
kaikki.org. "Nivkh Numeral word senses" (58 senses). Accessed August 4, 2026. The full recorded numeral-classifier apparatus: humans, animals, objects, boats, sleds, seines and fishing nets, holes/cells in a seine, rods strung with smelt, bunches of yukola, bunches of dog food, strands of rope, seal and kaluga tackle, long objects, small round objects. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Nivkh/pos-num/index.html
kaikki.org. “Samoan machine-readable dictionary.” Wiktextract extraction of English Wiktionary's Samoan entries, generated 2026-08-05. Source for the majority of headwords and glosses on this guide's deck, direct-read 2026-08-15.
kaikki.org. "White Hmong machine-readable dictionary." Machine-readable mirror of English Wiktionary generated with wiktextract, from the enwiktionary dump of 2026-07-06. Accessed August 5, 2026. Source of every headword and gloss in this deck, harvested from the Classifier, Pronoun, Numeral and Adverb indexes and from a subset of the Noun, Verb and Adjective range pages. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/White%20Hmong/index.html
kaikki.org. “Yucatec Maya machine-readable dictionary.” Machine-readable mirror of English Wiktionary generated with wiktextract; data extracted 2026-08-02 from the enwiktionary dump of 2026-07-06. Accessed 5 August 2026. The source of every form and gloss in this deck. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Yucatec%20Maya/index.html
kaikki.org. “Yucatec Maya Numeral word senses.” Accessed 5 August 2026. The 74 numeral senses documenting the vigesimal system — the kʼáal 'score' series, the baakʼ (400) series and pik (8000). https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Yucatec%20Maya/pos-num/index.html
Kamloops Chinuk Wawa, Chinuk pipa, and the vitality of pidgins (Robertson, 2012). Doctoral study of the variety the newspaper recorded http://dspace.library.uvic.ca:8080/handle/1828/3840
Kamloops Wawa (1891–1900), Early Canadiana Online. The digitised newspaper — the largest body of Duployan text in any language http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.8_04645
Kamusi Project — dictionario e grammatica. dictionario swahili e notas de grammatica (classes nominal) https://kamusi.org/
Kannada — S. N. Sridhar (Routledge Descriptive Grammars). The standard descriptive reference grammar of modern Kannada in English. https://www.routledge.com/Kannada/Sridhar/p/book/9780415009133
Karen Lichtman and Bill VanPatten, “Was Krashen Right? Forty Years Later,” Foreign Language Annals 54, no. 2 (2021): 283–305, https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12552. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1304023
Karin C. Ryding, A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Introduction. https://www.cambridge.org/9780521777711
Katalanisch ist eine eigenständige romanische Sprache mit ~9–10 Mio. Sprechern, amtlich in Katalonien, auf den Balearen und (als Valencianisch) in Valencia sowie alleinige Amtssprache Andorras. Siehe „Katalanische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalanische_Sprache
Kees de Bot, Wander Lowie, and Marjolijn Verspoor, "A Dynamic Systems Theory Approach to Second Language Acquisition," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10, no. 1 (2007): 7–21, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732
Kenstowicz, Michael J. “Phonetic Correlates of the Javanese Voicing Contrast in Stop Consonants.” NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Languages in and around Indonesia 70 (31 March 2021): 1–37. https://doi.org/10.15026/100088
Ket core vocabulary and noun classes (hīk 'man', qīm 'woman', doˀn 'knife', tɨˀs 'stone', boˀk 'fire', sūlʲ 'blood', keˀt 'person'), and the tone minimal set sūlʲ/suˀlʲ/súùlʲ/sùlʲ. See Stefan Georg, A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Brill, 2007), and Kotorova & Nefedov, Comprehensive Ket Dictionary (Lincom, 2015); summarised in 'Ket language', Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ket_language
Ket Language — research overview (EBSCO Research Starters). documentation & Vajda's fieldwork https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/ket-language
Kettunen & Helmke, Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs (free PDF, Wayeb). the standard free introduction to the script https://www.wayeb.org/resources/
Keyi Kang, Yumeng Xiao, Hanxiang Yu, Michele T. Diaz, and Haoyun Zhang, "Multilingual Language Diversity Protects Native Language Production under Different Control Demands," Brain Sciences 13, no. 11 (2023): 1587, https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/11/1587. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/11/1587
Khakas National Drama Theatre (A. M. Topanov), Abakan. Stage productions in Khakas — living formal register. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Хакасский_национальный_драматический_театр_имени_А._М._Топанова
Khakas New Testament (2009) — parallel text. Slow, standardized register, useful for shadowing.[^3] https://www.bible.com/languages/kjh
Khakas Research Institute of Language, Literature and History (KhakNIIYALI). Scholarly publications, folklore volumes, dictionaries. https://haknii.ru/
Kimbundu (Omniglot). Visão geral do alfabeto, números e textos de referência em quimbundo. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kimbundu.htm
Kimeltuwe. Materiales gráficos gratuitos (láminas, vocabulario, gramática) muy claros para empezar. https://www.kimeltuwe.org/
King Sejong Institute — Nuri-Sejonghakdang. free official Korean-learning resources https://www.iksi.or.kr/
Kingsley Read Lexicon. The community's reference spelling dictionary. https://www.readlexicon.org/
Kirshenbaum, Evan (with Usenet collaborators). ASCII-IPA specification, developed 1991–1993 for sci.lang / alt.usage.english; a 'second draft' posted to sci.lang in January 1993. The defining community document. Origin facts search-corroborated 2026-07-16; canonical URL varies (versions circulate on personal pages). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirshenbaum
KLI Forum — Vulcan discussion. The Klingon Language Institute also maintains discussion areas for other Star Trek languages including Vulcan. https://www.kli.org/
Klingon Language Institute, “Development and Use of the Klingon Language,” kli.org, accessed July 8, 2026, https://www.kli.org/about-klingon/klingon-history/ .
Klingonska Akademien (Uppsala), “Klingon Pocket Dictionary: Reference Tables” (verb-prefix, suffix-type and numeric-element tables from the covers of TKD), klingonska.org, accessed July 8, 2026, https://klingonska.org/dict/tables.html .
klokah.tw — Indigenous Languages e-learning. Indigenous Languages e-learning all levels — The official Taiwan platform: words, dialogues, audio and lessons for each Amis dialect. The best, most authoritative starting point. http://web.klokah.tw/
Kosmos Society (Harvard CHS) — learning modules. free video Intro to Attic Greek (with Hansen & Quinn) https://kosmossociety.chs.harvard.edu/learning-modules/
Kurniawan & Davies, “Finiteness in Sundanese” (2015). Oceanic Linguistics 54. Modern generative work on Sundanese clause structure. https://doi.org/10.1353/ol.2015.0010
L. L. Zamenhof, Fundamento de Esperanto (1905); grammar and examples are cross-checked against the project research dossier. https://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/
L. L. Zamenhof, Fundamento de Esperanto (Paris: Hachette, 1905). The canonical foundation of the language: the sixteen rules of grammar, the exercises (Ekzercaro) and the Universala Vortaro, defining the -o/-a/-e/-i endings, the plural -j, the accusative -n, and the tense/mood system. https://archive.org/details/FundamentoDeEsperanto
L’absence de genre, d’articles et de conjugaison, les marqueurs d’aspect (sudah/sedang/akan) et le système d’affixes suivent la référence : James N. Sneddon, Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar (Routledge). https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/
L’indonésien (bahasa Indonesia) est une langue austronésienne, langue officielle de l’Indonésie, comprise par plus de 200 millions de personnes ; écriture latine, phonétique. Voir « Indonésien ». https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indon%C3%A9sien
L’italien est une langue romane indo-européenne, environ 65 millions de locuteurs natifs, officielle en Italie, à Saint-Marin, au Vatican et dans une partie de la Suisse. Voir « Italien ». https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italien
La ausencia de género/artículos, el sistema de clases nominales (m-/wa- clase 1/2) con concordancia y la morfología verbal (prefijo de sujeto + marcador de tiempo + raíz) siguen a TUKI y a M. Marten & Russell, Colloquial Swahili (Routledge). https://kamusi.org/content/noun-classes
La eŭskara (euskara) estas izola lingvo (sen konataj parencoj), parolata de ~750.000 homoj en la hispana kaj franca Eŭskio; la normo estas Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vidu „Eŭska lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADska_lingvo
La germana lingvo — superrigardo (Vikipedio). historio, strukturo kaj disvastiĝo https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germana_lingvo
La hispana estas latinida hindeŭropa lingvo kun pli ol 480 milionoj da denaskaj parolantoj, oficiala en Hispanio kaj ~20 landoj de Hispanameriko. Vidu «Hispana lingvo» / “Spanish language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language
La hispana lingvo — superrigardo (Vikipedio). historio, disvastiĝo kaj strukturo https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispana_lingvo
La indonezia (bahasa Indonesia) estas aŭstronezia lingvo, oficiala en Indonezio, komprenata de pli ol 200 milionoj da homoj; latina, fonetika skribo. Vidu „Indonezia lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonezia_lingvo
La itala estas latinida hindeŭropa lingvo kun ĉirkaŭ 65 milionoj da denaskaj parolantoj, oficiala en Italio, San-Marino, Vatikano kaj parto de Svislando. Vidu „Itala lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itala_lingvo
la jbovlaste — collaborative dictionary. Editable multilingual dictionary regarded by many as the de-facto standard word source. http://jbovlaste.lojban.org/
la karda. A rapid-fire overview of the grammar in small pieces — a community-made learning aid. https://mw.lojban.org/papri/la_karda
La kataluna estas propra latinida lingvo kun ~9–10 milionoj da parolantoj, oficiala en Katalunio, la Balearoj kaj (kiel valencia) en Valencio, kaj la sola oficiala lingvo de Andoro. Vidu „Kataluna lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataluna_lingvo
La kvar-kaza sistemo, la difinaj artikoloj laŭ genro/kazo, la persona konjugacio kaj la V2-vortordo sekvas la normreferencon: Martin Durrell, Hammer's German Grammar and Usage, 6-a eld. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017). https://archive.org/details/hammersgermangra0000durr_b4y1
La substantiva genro, la kvar artikoloj, la persona konjugacio, kaj la distingo ser/estar sekvas la normreferencon: Real Academia Española kaj Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, Nueva gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa, 2009). https://www.rae.es/
la sutysisku — dictionary. Searchable multilingual Lojban dictionary that also works offline. https://la-lojban.github.io/sutysisku/lojban/
La svahila (Kiswahili) estas bantua lingvo, interlingvo de Orienta Afriko, komprenata de pli ol 100 milionoj (plejparte L2), oficiala en Tanzanio kaj Kenjo; latina, fonetika skribo. Vidu „Svahila lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svahila_lingvo
Lancelot Hogben, Interglossa: A Draft of an Auxiliary for a Democratic World Order (1943) — the precursor project, presented as an isolating auxiliary with controlled word order and a lexicon of internationally circulated scientific roots. https://sites.google.com/site/interglossa1943/
Landau, Ernestina, Mijo Lončarić, Damir Horga, and Ivo Škarić. "Croatian." Illustrations of the IPA, Journal of the International Phonetic Association. The peer-reviewed reference description used throughout section 2 and section 5: 25 consonant phonemes; five vowel qualities each distinctively short and long; the disputed long-only /ie/ diphthong; syllabic /r/ long (four to five trill contacts) versus short (one to two), sometimes with an [ə]-like glide, as in vrt; regressive voicing assimilation in clusters; nasal place assimilation; epenthetic glottal stop across word boundaries; the four-way accent system and its distribution rules; and a full transcription of a Croatian Television announcer reading The North Wind and the Sun. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association
Landau, Lončarić, Horga & Škarić, 'Illustrations of the IPA: Croatian', JIPA — attested phoneme-illustration words. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_language
Language Creation Society (conlang.org) — community definitions of conlang types and goals; the conlang flag flown on this page (Babel tower before a rising sun) was chosen by vote of the CONLANG mailing list community in 2004 and is used as the community's emblem. https://conlang.org/
Language Reactor. enhances Netflix & YouTube with dual subtitles, pop-up definitions, & sentence mining. https://www.languagereactor.com/
Language revitalization in Wilamowice (University of Warsaw). the revival programme http://www.revitalization.al.uw.edu.pl/eng/Wymysorys/63/71/language-revitalization-in-wilamowice--a-new
Language Transfer — Complete Spanish. senpaga aŭdkurso kiu bone taŭgas por pensemaj lernantoj https://www.languagetransfer.org/
Langue galloise (aperçu). classification, histoire, statut https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallois
Langue māorie (aperçu). classification, histoire, statut https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maori_(langue)
Larousse 法汉词典. 收录发音符号、例句及词性标注，是可靠的在线法汉参考工具。全级别 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais-chinois
larousse.fr. El diccionario bilingue de referencia más conocido en el mundo hispanohablante. Disponible en línea y en papel, con ejemplos de uso y tablas de conjugación. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/espagnol-francais
larousse.fr. Il dizionario bilingue di riferimento più usato nel mondo italofono. Disponibile online e cartaceo, con esempi d'uso e tavole di coniugazione. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/italien-francais
larousse.fr. O dicionário bilingue de referência mais usado no mundo lusófono. Disponível online e em formato físico, com exemplos de uso e tabelas de conjugação. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/portugais-francais
Larry Clark, Turkmen Reference Grammar (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998), Introduction & Phonology. https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/Turkmen_Reference_Grammar/titel_1454.ahtml
Latin is an Italic Indo-European language, historically the language of Rome and the Roman Empire, ancestor of the Romance languages and long the language of Western scholarship and the Catholic Church; it remains the official language of Vatican City. See “Latin.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
Latinitium. spoken-Latin resources, podcast and articles https://latinitium.com/
Laurence C. Thompson, A Vietnamese Reference Grammar (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987), Introduction. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/35055
Laver, John. The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980 — the settings framework. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/phonetic-description-of-voice-quality/
lawlessfrench.com. Grammatica francese spiegata in modo chiaro, organizzata per argomenti. È in inglese, ma è la referenza grammaticale online più completa disponibile. lawlessfrench.com https://www.lawlessfrench.com/
Le basco (euskara) es un lingua isolate (sin parentes cognoscite), parlate per ~750.000 personas in le Pais Basco espaniol e francese; le standard es le Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vide „Lingua basc“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_basc
Le catalano es un lingua romanic proprie con ~9–10 milliones de parlatores, official in Catalonia, le Balears e (como valencian) in Valentia, e le sol lingua official de Andorra. Vide „Lingua catalan“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_catalan
Le français congolais n'est pas un languoïde distinct : code ISO 639-3 fra, glottocode stan1290 (français) ; Glottolog ne recense aucune entrée séparée pour le français congolais, kinois ou brazzavillois. Voir « French [stan1290] », Glottolog. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/stan1290
Le français est la seule langue officielle de la RDC ; le kikongo-kituba, le lingala, le swahili et le tshiluba ont statut constitutionnel de langues nationales. Voir « Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ». https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo
Le français est la seule langue officielle de la République du Congo ; le kituba et le lingala y ont statut de langues nationales. Voir « Languages of the Republic of the Congo ». https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo
Le Gac, Somali as a Tone Language. 关于声调/格的专门研究，进阶阅读。 https://doi.org/10.21437/SpeechProsody.2016-60
Le germano es un lingua germanic occidental con 90+ milliones de parlatores native, le plus parlate in le UE, official in Germania, Austria, Liechtenstein e le Suissa. Vide „Lingua german“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_german
Le indonesian (bahasa Indonesia) es un lingua austronesian, official in Indonesia, comprendite per plus de 200 milliones de personas; scriptura latin e phonetic. Vide „Lingua indonesian“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_indonesian
Le italiano es un lingua romanic indoeuropee, circa 65 milliones de parlatores native, official in Italia, San Marino, le Vaticano e in parte del Suissa. Vide „Lingua italian“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_italian
Le Samoa — Samoan-language news. The Samoa Observer publishes bilingual and Samoan-language news coverage from Samoa. https://www.samoaobserver.ws/
Le swahili (Kiswahili) es un lingua bantu, lingua franca del Africa oriental, comprendite per plus de 100 milliones de personas (majoritariemente L2), official in Tanzania e Kenya; scriptura latin e phonetic. Vide „Lingua swahili“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_swahili
Lea Faka-Tonga Orthography Guidelines — NZ Ministry for Pacific Peoples. Official guidance on writing Tongan correctly, including the ʻokina and macron. https://www.mpp.govt.nz/assets/Resources/Orthography-guidelines/lea-faka-tonga-orthography-guidelines.pdf
Leading Brazilian news outlets (publishers’ own sites), accessed 2026-07-18: Folha de S.Paulo (folha.uol.com.br), O Globo (oglobo.globo.com), O Estado de S. Paulo / Estadão (estadao.com.br), Agência Brasil (agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br), Correio Braziliense (correiobraziliense.com.br). Cited as authentic-input sources; outlets are independently well known. https://www.folha.uol.com.br/
Learn Lingala (Mofeko). Vocabulaire thématique : nombres, mois, phrases. https://lingala.mofeko.com/
Learn te reo Māori (New Zealand Government). official overview and pathways to courses https://www.govt.nz/browse/history-culture-and-heritage/maori-language-culture-and-heritage/te-reo-maori-maori-language/
Learn Welsh / Dysgu Cymraeg (National Centre for Learning Welsh). the official adult-learner programme; courses at every level https://learnwelsh.cymru/
LearnAmo. Lively, all-Italian lessons that scale from beginner to advanced. https://www.youtube.com/c/LearnAmoItalian
LearnGaelic.scot. national learning portal & dictionary https://learngaelic.scot/
learngerman.dw.com. A Deutsche Welle oferece o curso gratuito Nicos Weg (A1–B1) com vídeos e exercícios. Disponível em português. learngerman.dw.com https://learngerman.dw.com/pt/aprender-alem%C3%A3o/s-9171
learngerman.dw.com. Deutsch Welle offre il corso gratuito Nicos Weg (A1–B1) con video, esercizi e spiegazioni. Alcune sezioni sono disponibili con interfaccia in italiano. learngerman.dw.com https://learngerman.dw.com/it/imparare-il-tedesco/s-9170
Leavitt, Robert M. (1996). Passamaquoddy-Maliseet (Languages of the World/Materials 27). Munich: Lincom Europa — grammatical sketch covering polysynthesis, agglutination and the direct–inverse system. See also UNB’s recognition of Leavitt’s documentation work. https://blogs.unb.ca/newsroom/2025/10/robert-leavitt.php
Legate, Julie Anne. “Split Ergativity Based on Nominal Type.” Lingua 148 (2014): 183–212. Cited for the aspectual basis of the Marathi ergative split. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2014.06.002
Légifrance. "Constitution du 4 octobre 1958, Article 75-1." Accessed July 17, 2026. "Les langues régionales appartiennent au patrimoine de la France." The official consolidated text dates the provision to 25 July 2008. Quoted here as heritage recognition specifically, not as official-language status. https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000019241104
Legonium. free graded Latin stories with audio https://legonium.com/
Les romanisations de ce guide suivent le système Hepburn, utilisé ici comme aide à l'apprentissage à côté de l'écriture japonaise et non comme substitut. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization
Lewis, Geoffrey, Turkish Grammar, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) — ngữ pháp học thuật kinh điển của tiếng Thổ. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/turkish-grammar-9780198700364
Lewis, Turkish Grammar (Oxford). A torok nyelvtan klasszikus referenciamuve. https://global.oup.com/
Lexer, Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch (online). the standard MHG dictionary https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=Lexer
Lia Rumantscha. Die Dachorganisation der Rätoromanen: Kurse, Materialien und Beratung. https://www.liarumantscha.ch/
Liliya M. Gorelova, Manchu Grammar, Handbook of Oriental Studies 8.7 (Leiden: Brill, 2002); on Manchu as a head-final, exclusively suffixing agglutinative language and the language of the Qing archive. Overview corroborated by “Manchu language,” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_language
Lindenberg, Norbert. “Implementing Javanese.” Unicode Technical Note 47, 13 September 2022. Non-normative implementation guidance. https://www.unicode.org/notes/tn47/
Ling App. gamified language learning in the style of Duolingo. Strong dialogues, good for review & daily habit-building. Recommended. https://www.ling-app.com/
LingQ. (free & paid tiers) — best suited for intermediate learners. Combines a multilingual dictionary, native-speaker audio, AI-generated TTS, & an integrated SRS. Supports .EPUB import for reading Cantonese texts. Optimized for tablet use (iPad recommended). Tap unknown words while reading to get instant definitions & add them to your word bank. https://www.lingq.com/
Lingua gallese (panoramica). classificazione, storia, stato https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_gallese
Lingua Latina Per Se Illustrata (Ørberg, Familia Romana). Latin taught entirely in Latin by graded reading; widely loved for building fluency https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Latina_per_se_illustrata
Lingua maori (panoramica). classificazione, storia, stato https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_maori
LinguaCommons colombian-spanish-srs-en SRS deck (399 terms) — the source of the colombianismos, everyday verbs and adjectives tabulated here. Note that this deck was built without a recorded sourceNote or citations; see the closing gap list. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/stan1288
LinguaCommons in-repo research dossier, "Nivkh (Gilyak)" (17 files, compiled 2026-07-16), at CITATIONS/All Sources (Pre-Quarantine)/RESEARCH/Nivkh. Source of the attested greeting text and the attested consonant-alternation 'soup' set, the alphabet and allograph guidance, the autonym forms by variety, the census interpretation, the decline narrative, the community's one-language framing, and the standing instruction that no AI-generated Nivkh be presented. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/gily1242
LinguaCommons in-repo research dossier, “Yucatec Maya,” RESEARCH/Yucatec-Maya. Source for the INEGI 2020 census figure of 774,755 speakers (down from 795,499 in 2010), the ~10.5% share of Mexico's indigenous-language speakers, and the three diverging vitality assessments (Glottolog AES “not endangered”, ElCat/ELP “at risk”, Ethnologue “stable indigenous language”). https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/yuca1254
LinguaCommons Mexican-Spanish research dossier, local evidence review (2026-07-17); the guide retains its cautions and does not reproduce source text. Kaikki's Mexican-Spanish-labelled dictionary category is a current inspection route, not a claim that it covers every regional item. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Spanish/categories-other/MG/Mexican%20Spanish/put--requisitar.html
LinguaCommons Portugal Portuguese local evidence collection (2026-07-21). Its generic Portuguese machine-translated rows were explicitly quarantined and are not presented as Portugal-specific evidence. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/braz1247
LinguaCommons Tamil research dossier — attested numerals (Omniglot) and greeting வணக்கம் (Wiktionary); typology from the encyclopedic grammar overview and Schiffman on diglossia. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/tami1289
LinguaCommons Tongan research dossier — attested numerals (noa…hiva), pronoun/possession examples (ʻeku paʻanga, hoku sino) and the three-register 'come and eat' set. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongan_language
LinguaCommons West Frisian research dossier: phonology-and-pronunciation.md, grammar-and-syntax.md, and example-material.md, 2026-07-18; all underlying source IDs are documented in its sources.json. https://www.fryske-akademy.nl/
LinguaCommons 克罗地亚语研究档案；Wayles Browne, 'Serbo-Croat' (The Slavonic Languages)；Alexander & Elias-Bursać, BCS: A Textbook（体、格的教学例证）。 https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/croa1245
LinguaCommons 索马里语研究档案；John I. Saeed, Somali (John Benjamins, 1999)；Morgan Nilsson, A Few Things About Somali（后缀冠词与焦点词的attested例证）。 https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/soma1255
LinguaCommons 高棉语研究档案（语言概况、类型学、语域系统的“吃”诸形式、UDHR 样例、学习资源），综合 Glottolog cent1989、Huffman (1970)、Smyth Colloquial Cambodian、Headley (1977) 等。 https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cent1989
Linguee Português-Espanhol. Tradução em contexto com exemplos reais retirados de textos bilingues. https://www.linguee.pt/portugues-espanhol
lipu Linku (usage dictionary) and the Toki Pona Dictionary (ku, 2021) by Sonja Lang - the nimi pu core set, the nimi ku suli common additions, and live community usage data. The a-leko dictionary entries in this guide were drawn from the Linku dataset. https://linku.la/
lipu tenpo — magazine written in Toki Pona. Short essays, fiction and comics entirely in Toki Pona — real reading practice. https://liputenpo.org/
lipu Wikipesija — the Toki Pona wiki/encyclopedia. A community encyclopedia written in Toki Pona; good graded reading. https://wikipesija.org/
Lisaan Masry, Egyptian Arabic dictionary and grammar resources, accessed 2026-08-04. https://www.lisaanmasry.org/
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Georgian. Free public-domain Peace Corps Georgian course materials. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/georgian
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Kazakh. Free public-domain Peace Corps Kazakh course books and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/kazakh
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Kyrgyz. Free public-domain Peace Corps Kyrgyz course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/kyrgyz
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Tagalog. Free public-domain Peace Corps Tagalog course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/tagalog
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Turkmen. Free public-domain Peace Corps Turkmen course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/turkmen
Live Lingua — Peace Corps Uzbek. Free public-domain Peace Corps Uzbek course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/uzbek
Livonian Institute, University of Latvia, “Multifunctional Dictionary of Livonian (2021–2024)” — the Institute (founded 2018) and its dictionary giving full declensions and conjugations; a corpus of older Livonian is archived at the University of Tartu. https://www.livonian.lv/en/research-projects/multifunctional-dictionary-of-livonian-2021-2024/
Livret officiel de formation des enseignants (IFADEM, ministère de l'Éducation, RDC/Kinshasa) : comparaison du français aux quatre langues nationales, inventaires vocaliques, et schémas d'interférence organisés par langue première de l'élève, dont les substitutions consonantiques propres aux locuteurs de ciluba. https://www.ifadem.org/storage/drupal/ressources/rdc-kinshasa-livret_1-variations-linguistiques-culturelles-erreurs-phonetiques-remediation.pdf
Lo swahili (Kiswahili) è una lingua bantu, lingua franca dell’Africa orientale, compresa da oltre 100 milioni di persone (per lo più L2), ufficiale in Tanzania e Kenya; scrittura latina e fonetica. Vedi « Lingua swahili ». https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_swahili
Logeion (University of Chicago). combined Latin (and Greek) dictionaries, free, with app https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Lojban Wave Lessons. A popular community textbook. Unofficial and represents its authors' views. https://mw.lojban.org/papri/Lojban_Wave_Lessons
Louis Couturat and Léopold Leau, Histoire de la langue universelle (Paris: Hachette, 1903). The standard historical survey of auxiliary-language projects that framed the work of the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language. https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalang00coutuoft
Louis de Beaufront, Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido (Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona, 1925). The creators' detailed reference grammar: the -o/-i noun system, invariable -a adjectives, the -ar/-as/-is/-os/-us/-ez verb paradigm, pronouns, prepositions and the affix system. https://archive.org/details/Kompleta_Gramatiko_detaloza_Ido
LSJ — Liddell–Scott–Jones online. the standard Ancient Greek lexicon https://lsj.gr/
LU Līvõ Institūt — Livonian Institute, University of Latvia. research, dictionary, news https://www.livonian.lv/en/
Lughayangu - Kimbundu. Dicionário e frases comuns em quimbundo com tradução. https://lughayangu.com/kimbundu
Lyam M. Bailey, Kate Lockary, and Eve Higby, "Cross-Linguistic Influence in the Bilingual Lexicon: Evidence for Ubiquitous Facilitation and Context-Dependent Interference Effects on Lexical Processing," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 27, no. 3 (2024): 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000597. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000597
Made with Lau. a YouTube channel & website featuring traditional Cantonese recipes narrated with integrated Cantonese vocabulary & language content. Highly recommended for combining cultural immersion with practical cooking. https://www.madewithlau.com/
Madinah Arabic / Durusul Lughah. Materi klasik bahasa Arab yang populer di pesantren dan kalangan pemula. https://www.madinaharabic.com/
Mahican (Mohican) is an Eastern Algonquian language of the upper Hudson Valley (community now Stockbridge-Munsee, Wisconsin), dormant and being revitalized. See “Mahican language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahican_language
Malone (1960), "Do we need a new alphabet?", Chicago Sunday Sun-Times. Malone's own case, scanned — the primary document for the alphabet's public launch. http://www.unifon.org/images/Malone%20article.gif
Maltseva, Vera S., & Sultrekova, Elvira V. "Khakas." Journal of Endangered Languages (TDD/JofEL) 13(23), 2023: 237–252. Open access (CC BY-NC 4.0) — primary fieldwork sketch: lax vowels ị/ı̣̈, weak/strong consonant alternations, converb-auxiliary aspect system, personal markers, desiderative dialect split (Saghay кил- vs Kacha хын-), attested sentences «Халас кирек прайзына», «Мин отыс читі чылда тӧреем», «Чоохтап пиріңер!», Russian-contact phenomena, glossed Kacha–Saghay conversation. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tdd
Mamar Kassey (band, Niamey). Niger's flagship fusion band — lyrics in Zarma/Songhay, Fulfulde and Hausa. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamar_Kassey
Mango Languages. falls between Cantonese101 & Ling in scope & approach. Solid course; may be accessible free via a library card. Choose one course platform & commit to it rather than switching between options. https://mangolanguages.com/
Māori (te reo Māori) is an Eastern Polynesian language, Indigenous to Aotearoa New Zealand and an official language since the Maori Language Act 1987; it is the subject of a major revitalization movement (kōhanga reo, kura kaupapa). See “Māori language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language
maprofdefrançais. A Quebec teacher explaining québécois features clearly. https://www.youtube.com/@maprofdefrancais
Marc Okrand, Klingon for the Galactic Traveler (New York: Pocket Books, 1997). Source for higher numerals and cultural/idiomatic usage.
Marc Okrand, The Klingon Dictionary, 2nd ed. (New York: Pocket Books / Simon & Schuster, 1992). Primary grammar and lexicon of Klingon (tlhIngan Hol).
Marit Vamarasi and Jotama Muahea'he'a Vamarasi, Rotuman Language Lessons, Lessons 1 and 2 and Some Useful Rotuman Expressions, hosted on the Rotuma Website (University of Hawai'i). http://www.rotuma.net/os/LanguageLessons/lessons.htm
Markič, «Algunos aspectos fonético-fonológicos del español de Colombia» (Linguistica 57/1): sistema pentavocálico, apertura de /e/ y /o/, nasalización por elisión de nasal final, diptongación de hiatos, realizaciones de /s/ (predorsal, apicoalveolar, apicoalveolar cóncava antioqueña), tokens de yeísmo, debilitamiento y elisión de /x/, y realizaciones de /f/. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Phonetic_and_phonological_aspects_of_Colombian_Spanish.pdf
Martin Durrell, Hammer's German Grammar and Usage, 6th ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/Hammers-German-Grammar-and-Usage/Durrell/p/book/9781138177208
Martin Durrell, Hammer’s German Grammar and Usage, 6th ed. (London: Routledge, 2017), ch. 1–2: every German noun has fixed grammatical gender (der/die/das), which must be learned with the noun. https://www.routledge.com/
Martin J. Koch, Kristin Kersten, and Werner Greve, "An Emotional Advantage of Multilingualism," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 27, no. 5 (2024): 950–963, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000937. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000937
Martin Maiden & Cecilia Robustelli, A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2007), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/A-Reference-Grammar-of-Modern-Italian/Maiden-Robustelli/p/book/9780340913390
Martin Molhanec and Vojtěch Merunka, “Neoslavonic Language Zonal Language Constructing,” in Proceedings of the 2015 2nd International Conference on Education, Language, Art and Intercultural Communication (Atlantis Press, 2016), doi:10.2991/icelaic-15.2016.60. Academic account of the design principles behind the zonal Slavic language. https://doi.org/10.2991/icelaic-15.2016.60
Materiais do ALUPEC. A ortografia oficial e descrições gramaticais publicadas em Cabo Verde. https://www.facebook.com/
Mattissen, Johanna. Dependent-Head Synthesis in Nivkh: A Contribution to a Typology of Polysynthesis. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2003. ISBN 1-58811-476-7 (Benjamins tsl.57; revised University of Cologne PhD, 2001). The typological monograph; incorporation, synthesis, and the stress facts at pp. 85–86. Consulted via the in-repo dossier. https://benjamins.com/catalog/tsl.57
Max W. Wheeler, Alan Yates & Nicolau Dols, Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1999), capitolo sul 'passat perifrastic' (vaig + infinitiu). https://www.routledge.com/Catalan-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Wheeler-Yates-Dols/p/book/9780415207775
Meeuwis, Michael, A Grammatical Overview of Lingala: Revised and Extended Edition (Studies in African Linguistics 81 ; München : LINCOM Europa, 2020), ISBN 978-3-96939-004-7 — description de référence de la morphologie verbale (présent L-a, progressif avec kozala, futur -ko-), phonologie et classes nominales (source principale de l'article de Wikipédia). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingala
Mellonath Daeron Index of Tengwar Specimina (DTS). The catalogue of published Tengwar samples. The place to check whether something is attested. http://www.forodrim.org/daeron/mdtci.html
Memory Alpha — Vulcan language. The Star Trek wiki's catalogue of canon Vulcan words and phrases from all productions, with episode citations. https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Vulcan_language
Merrill Swain, “Communicative Competence: Some Roles of Comprehensible Input and Comprehensible Output in Its Development,” in Input in Second Language Acquisition, ed. Susan M. Gass and Carolyn G. Madden (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1985), 235–53. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ511935
Mi’gmaq–Mi’kmaq Online Talking Dictionary (mikmaqonline.org) — community lexical resource with audio recorded by fluent speakers. https://www.mikmaqonline.org/
Mi’kmaq is an Eastern Algonquian language of the Maritimes/Gaspé/Maine, the most-spoken of the group (~7,000), written in the Smith–Francis orthography. See “Mi’kmaq language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language
Michael Fuller, An Introduction to Literary Chinese. widely used textbook https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674043725
Michael H. Long, “The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition,” in Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, ed. William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996), 413–68. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED507194
Middle English Dictionary (University of Michigan). the standard dictionary, free online https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/
Middle English is the stage of English c. 1150–1500, following the Norman Conquest's loss of inflection and influx of French vocabulary; its major author is Chaucer. See “Middle English.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English
Middle High German (c. 1050–1350) is the High German of the medieval courtly epics and Minnesang (Nibelungenlied; Walther von der Vogelweide). See “Middle High German.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_High_German
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1990). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Csikszentmihalyi%20Flow%20The%20Psychology%20of%20Optimal%20Experience
Miller, Kirk, & Martin Ball. Unicode proposals L2/20-039 (2020-01-08) and L2/20-116 (2020-04-14; 22 characters) — read in full: 1990 origin quote, Oslo 2010 panel, Halifax June 2016 ratification, chart structure, productive "Other Sounds" pattern, code points U+1AC1–1AC4, U+AB6C–AB6F, U+A7CB–A7D8, SIL Gentium reference font. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116-ext-ipa-sounds.pdf
Ministerio de las Culturas, las Artes y el Patrimonio (Chile). "Elicura Chihuailaf es el primer escritor mapuche en obtener el Premio Nacional de Literatura 2020." Accessed August 2026. Records that Elicura Chihuailaf Nahuelpán, born in Quechurewe, commune of Cunco, Región de la Araucanía, on 15 February 1952, is the first Mapuche writer to receive Chile's national literature prize; that he was immersed from childhood in Mapuche oral tradition; that his bilingual Spanish–Mapudungun work fuses orality and writing; that more than fifteen of his works have been translated into some twenty languages; that he works as an anthologist and as a translator from Spanish into Mapudungun; and that more than a thousand public figures signed a petition supporting his candidacy. https://www.cultura.gob.cl/institucional/elicura-chihuailaf-es-el-primer-escritor-mapuche-en-obtener-el-premio-nacional-de-literatura-2020/
Mistry, P. J. “Gujarati Morphology.” In Morphologies of Asia and Africa, edited by Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007. Detailed treatment of the ergative construction and of agreement in the perfective. https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-109-2.html
Mohegan-Pequot is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian language of Connecticut/Long Island, dormant (cf. Fidelia Fielding’s diaries) and reawakening. See “Mohegan-Pequot language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohegan-Pequot_language
Molesworth, A Dictionary, Marathi and English. 经典的马拉地语–英语词典（在线可查）。 https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/molesworth/
Morgan Nilsson (University of Gothenburg), 'A Few Things About Somali' — orthography & grammar orientation; source of the attested article examples (guri→guriga, cunto→cuntada). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_language
Motswako (Setswana hip-hop) and Setswana popular music (Culture Spears et al.); D.P.S. Monyaise and Sabata-mpho Mokae — the literary line. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motswako
Moussa Poussy (Zarma singer). Niamey star of Zarma-language popular music. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moussa_Poussy
Müller-Gotama, Franz. Sundanese. Languages of the World/Materials 369. Munich: LINCOM Europa, 2001. Cited via the Wikipedia phonology section for the eighteen-consonant inventory and the seven-vowel system. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese_language#Phonology
My Latin Life. “Best Podcasts for Learning Brazilian Portuguese.” Accessed 2026-07-18. Source for the learner-podcast list (Portuguese with Leo, Semantica Portuguese, Carioca Connection, Street Smart Brazil, Fala Gringo). Reliability: moderate (learner-oriented blog). https://mylatinlife.com/best-portuguese-podcasts-brazilian/
Nā Kai ʻEwalu. The standard university textbook series used in Hawaiian-medium programmes. https://nflrc.hawaii.edu/
Nação Ovimbundu. Lições e frases de Umbundu (em português). https://web.archive.org/web/20090831040458/http://ovimbundu.org/Educacao/
Nahuatl Dictionary (IDIEZ / Wired Humanities). Gran diccionario en línea con ejemplos. https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/
Narragansett is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian language of Rhode Island, recorded in Roger Williams’ 1643 A Key into the Language of America. See “Narragansett language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narragansett_language
National Institute of Korean Language (국립국어원). the official language authority of South Korea https://www.korean.go.kr/
Native Languages of the Americas, "Blackfoot Words," "Blackfoot Animal Words," "Blackfoot Color Words," "Blackfoot Counting Worksheet" and "Blackfoot Possession," accessed 4 August 2026. Non-academic source, used for accented spellings cross-checked against the community books. https://www.native-languages.org/blackfoot_words.htm
Nayiri.com. Класичні вірменські словники онлайн; незамінні для пошуку слів. https://www.nayiri.com/
Nedjalkov, Vladimir P., and Galina A. Otaina. A Syntax of the Nivkh Language: The Amur Dialect. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2013 (slcs.139). The major syntax of the Amur variety and the source of the future/non-future two-tense analysis; Otaina was herself a Nivkh linguist. Consulted via the in-repo dossier. https://benjamins.com/catalog/slcs.139
Netflix. filter by original Cantonese audio for authentic immersion content. https://www.netflix.com/
News in Slow Spanish. A atualidade lida devagar e explicada, ideal para treinar a compreensão oral. https://www.newsinslowspanish.com/
newsinslowfrench.com. Attualità mondiale letta lentamente e commentata, perfetta per il livello intermedio. Esiste versione base e intermedia. newsinslowfrench.com https://www.newsinslowfrench.com/
NHK World — Easy Japanese. free public-broadcaster beginner lessons https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/en/
nhk.or.jp/lesson. Das japanische Rundfunksystem NHK bietet täglich kurze Japanisch-Lektionen. Die Hauptplattform ist auf Englisch, aber die Struktur ist für Deutschsprachige gut zugänglich; zusätzlich gibt es nhk.or.jp/lesson für grundlegende Lektionen. nhk.or.jp/lesson https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/
nhk.or.jp/lesson/es. Nihongo Easy Japanese (en español) — El servicio público japonés NHK ofrece un curso gratuito de japonés básico con explicaciones en español. Cubre las situaciones cotidianas más frecuentes con audio, texto y ejercicios. Ideal para los primeros meses. nhk.or.jp/lesson/es https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/es/
nhk.or.jp/nhkworld. Noticias y documentales japoneses con textos y audio, muchos con subtítulos. El portal completo para inmersión mediática. nhk.or.jp/nhkworld https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/
NHKラジオまいにちスペイン語. 日本語話者向けの定番ラジオ講座。テキストも市販されており、独学の柱になります。 https://www.nhk.or.jp/gogaku/spanish/
NHKラジオまいにちフランス語. 日本語話者向けの定番ラジオ講座。入門・応用編があり、テキストも市販されています。日本語解説で体系的に学べる頼れる柱です。入門〜中級 https://www.nhk.or.jp/gogaku/french/
Niitsitapiisini: Our Way of Life — Glossary of Blackfoot Terms (Glenbow Museum). Cultural vocabulary in context, from the Glenbow teacher toolkit https://www.glenbow.org/blackfoot/teacher_toolkit/english/culture/language.htm
Nina Woll and Pierre-Luc Paquet, "Developing Crosslinguistic Awareness through Plurilingual Consciousness-Raising Tasks," Language Teaching Research 29, no. 1 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544
Nipmuc is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian variety of central Massachusetts, dormant and thinly documented (cf. the ‘Loup’ records). See “Loup language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loup_language
Nova Scotia Archives, Mi’kmaq Holdings Resource Guide — Orthographies: the history of Mi’kmaq writing (Maillard, Rand, Pacifique, and the modern Smith–Francis standard). https://archives.novascotia.ca/mikmaq/using/?Topic=orthographies
Novial research dossier; grammar and attested examples are traced to Jespersen’s published work and clearly marked where evidence is limited. https://sites.google.com/site/noviallexike/novial-lexike-1930
Novial Wikipedia (nov.wikipedia.org). Extended natural prose written in Novial https://nov.wikipedia.org/
Numbers in Igbo (Omniglot). the numeral system https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/igbo.htm
Numerals (dua, rua, tolu, va, lima, ono, vitu, walu, ciwa, tini) and core greetings (Bula, Vinaka, Io, Sega, Moce) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and Schütz (1985). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/fijian.htm
Numerals and basic vocabulary follow common written Zurich-German (Züritüütsch) usage; because there is no standard orthography, spellings vary by writer and region. Cross-checked against Omniglot, 'Numbers in Swiss German', and 'Zurich German.' https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/swissgerman.htm
Numerals one to ten (Cyrillic orthography with IPA), including the subtractive forms for eight and nine, from “Ket numbers,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/ket.htm
O basco (euskara) é uma língua isolada (sem parentes conhecidos), falada por ~750.000 pessoas no País Basco espanhol e francês; o padrão é o Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Ver « Língua basca ». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_basca
O catalão é uma língua românica própria com ~9–10 milhões de falantes, oficial na Catalunha, Baleares e (como valenciano) em Valência, e única língua oficial de Andorra. Ver «Língua catalã». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_catal%C3%A3
O italiano é uma língua românica indo-europeia, cerca de 65 milhões de falantes nativos, oficial na Itália, em San Marino, no Vaticano e em parte da Suíça. Ver «Língua italiana». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_italiana
o kama sona e toki pona! (jan Misali) — video course. A widely used free 12-part video course introducing the whole language. https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjinIpafBt-zAmnvOZDGCiFbBz-clOX0e
OCS morphology: three genders, seven noun cases (six for pronouns/adjectives), three numbers including the living dual, the aspect system and the aorist/imperfect past tenses, and core vocabulary. See 'Old Church Slavonic grammar', Wikipedia, and Lunt (2001). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar
OCS phonology and orthography (jers ъ/ь, yat ѣ, nasal vowels ѧ/ѫ, yery ꙑ, the palatalisation alternations) and the distinction between the classical canon and later recensions. See Horace Lunt, Old Church Slavonic Grammar (Mouton de Gruyter, 2001). https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110876888/html
Office for National Statistics, “Welsh language, Wales: Census 2021” — 538,300 speakers aged 3+ (17.8%); ~25% with some skills; decline since 2011. UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger classes Welsh as ‘vulnerable’. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/welshlanguagewales/census2021
Office public de la langue bretonne / Ofis publik ar brezhoneg. Institutional site, including the Desketa learning platform, the TermOfis terminology database and thematic lexicons. Accessed July 17, 2026. Desketa launched June 2024; the Office describes its initial coverage as A0–A1 with audio recorded by experienced speakers. TermOfis is framed by the Office itself as a terminology database rather than a general dictionary. https://www.fr.brezhoneg.bzh/
Offices publics de la langue basque (Iparralde). Cours et réseaux d'apprentissage côté français. https://www.mintzalasai.eus/
Official grammar (Gramatica). The maintained reference grammar — the authoritative description of spelling, pronunciation and structure. https://elefen.org/salon/gramatica/
Official IPA chart https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/chart
Official Ithkuil site — ithkuil.net. John Quijada's own site, with the full grammar of New Ithkuil (2023) and archives of earlier versions. The essential starting point. https://ithkuil.net/
Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg (Public Office for the Breton Language). official promotion body https://www.brezhoneg.bzh/
OHCHR (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights). “Universal Declaration of Human Rights — Portuguese (European) translation.” Accessed 2026-07-17. European Portuguese wording of UDHR Article 1 ('Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência...'), used to contrast BP vs EP wording of the same passage. https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/portuguese
Oʻzbek tilining izohli lugʻati. Özbekçenin açiklamali sözlügü ve yazim kaynaklari. https://savodxon.uz/
Oʻzbekiston Milliy teleradiokompaniyasi (O'zMTRK). Özbek devlet radyo-televizyonu: haber ve programlar, dinleme pratigi. https://mtrk.uz/
Ojibwe.net — Freelang and community word lists. Community-maintained vocabulary and phrase resources across several Ojibwe dialects. https://ojibwe.net/
Ojibwemodaa — Anton Treuer's Living Our Language. University of Minnesota Press. Widely used oral-history-based Ojibwe course materials by a leading Ojibwe linguist and speaker. https://www.upress.umn.edu/
Old Church Slavonic: the first literary/liturgical Slavic language, standardised in 863 by Cyril and Methodius for the Great Moravian mission (based on the South Slavic dialect near Thessaloniki), spread via the Preslav and Ohrid schools; the Glagolitic then Cyrillic alphabets; the jers and nasal vowels. See 'Old Church Slavonic', Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic
Old English inflectional grammar (three genders; nominative/accusative/genitive/dative/instrumental; strong and weak nouns, adjectives and verbs; ablaut vs dental-suffix verbs) and core vocabulary. See Joseph Bosworth & T. Northcote Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, and Joseph Wright, Old English Grammar. https://bosworthtoller.com/
Old English phonology and spelling (thorn/eth/ash/wynn, vowel length, the c/ċ and g/ġ palatalisation, medial voicing of f/s/þ). See 'Old English' and its phonology, Wikipedia; and A. Campbell, Old English Grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English
Old High German grammar (three genders; four cases; strong/weak nouns, adjectives and verbs; the fully-distinct unstressed vowels that later weaken to -e in Middle High German) and vocabulary. See 'Old High German', Wikipedia, and Gerhard Köbler, Althöchdeutsches Wörterbuch. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German
Olga Kepinska et al., "Language Combinations of Multilinguals Are Reflected in Their First-Language Knowledge and Processing," Scientific Reports 13 (2023): 1947, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27952-2. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27952-2
Ömer Eren, "Towards Multilingual Turn in Language Classes: Plurilingual Awareness as an Indicator of Intercultural Communicative Competence," International Journal of Multilingualism 21, no. 2 (2024): 783–801, https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2022.2090568. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2022.2090568
Omniglot — Arabic. عربی حروفِ تہجی، شکلیں اور تلفظ، نمونہ جملوں کے ساتھ۔ https://www.omniglot.com/writing/arabic.htm
Omniglot — Georgian. The Mkhedruli alphabet, sounds and useful phrases at a glance. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/georgian.htm
Omniglot — Kazakh. The Cyrillic and Latin alphabets, sounds and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kazakh.htm
Omniglot — Kurdish. Clear overview of the alphabets, sounds and useful phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kurdish.htm
Omniglot — Pashto. The Perso-Arabic alphabet with its extra Pashto letters, plus sample phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/pashto.htm
Omniglot — Tamil language & script. Clear one-page overview of the writing system with the full letter charts. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tamil.htm
Omniglot — Useful phrases in Bavarian (Englisch). Grüße, Höflichkeitsformeln und Alltagsphrasen https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/bavarian.php
Omniglot, "Hindi (हिन्दी)," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/hindi.htm. On Devanagari and Bengali both being Brahmic abugidas. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/hindi.htm
Omniglot, “Numbers in Klingon” and “Useful phrases in Klingon,” omniglot.com, accessed July 8, 2026 (used to cross-verify numerals and set phrases).
Omniglot, "Persian (Farsi / فارسی)," writing system, the 28 Arabic letters plus the four added Persian letters پ چ ژ گ, accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/persian.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/persian.htm
Omniglot: "Khakas language, alphabet and pronunciation" — script chronology and alphabet chart, incl. the six non-Russian Cyrillic letters. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/khakas.htm
Omniglot: Swahili. Alfabeto, números e frases úteis. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/swahili.htm
Omniglot: Tamil（数字与短语）. 数字、常用语与书写系统。 https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/tamil.htm
Omniglot: Tswana. Alphabet and sample text at a glance. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tswana.htm
Omniglot: Zarma alphabet and pronunciation. Quick orthography reference with the UDHR sample text. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/zarma.htm
Omniglot：Fuzhounese. 福州话与平话字概览、范例与发音说明。 https://www.omniglot.com/chinese/fuzhounese.htm
On Amazigh grammar — the feminine circumfix t-…-t; the two noun states (état libre vs état d'annexion / construct state, in which the noun's initial vowel changes after a preposition or as a post-verbal subject); verb–subject–object order; the independent pronouns; the aspect-based verb (aorist / perfective / imperfective stems, with the future particle ad); and negation with ur … (ara) — cf. Kossmann, The Berber Languages, and IRCAM grammatical resources. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages
On Arabic word order (VSO/SVO), the dual number, and case marking, see "Arabic grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar
On Bengali (Eastern Indo-Aryan) lacking grammatical gender and the ergative case, in contrast to Hindi's perfective ergative "ne" (verb agrees with the object), see "Ergative–absolutive alignment" and "Hindustani grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_grammar
On distinctive features of Zurich/High Alemannic — the k → ch shift (Kind → Chind), the loss of the simple past (Präteritum) in favour of the Perfekt (ich bi gange), the replacement of the genitive by vo + dative, and the pervasive diminutive -li — cf. Russ, The Dialects of Modern German (Routledge, 1990); and 'Zurich German.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich_German
On Drehu (qene drehu) — an Austronesian (Loyalty Islands) Kanak language of Lifou with ~12,000–13,000 speakers, a French regional language taught at INALCO (since 1973) and the University of New Caledonia, regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK, founded 2007); its Latin orthography (incl. ë /ɛ/, ö /ʌ/, doubled vowels for length, voiceless-nasal digraphs hm/hn/hng/hny, and dr/tr) and the chiefly register qene miny — cf. 'Drehu language' and the ALK. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehu_language
On Fijian basic word order (verb-initial, typically VOS), the two articles (common na, personal o/ko) and the pronoun system (with inclusive/exclusive and dual/paucal distinctions), cf. Dixon, R. M. W., A Grammar of Boumaa Fijian (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); and Schütz (1985). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijian_language
On Fula (Fulfulde / Pulaar / Pular) — an Atlantic (Senegambian, Niger–Congo) language of a dialect continuum spoken by ~25–40 million people across the Sahel from Senegal to Sudan; its noun-class system and marking of plurals by initial-consonant mutation; and its implosive consonants — cf. 'Fula language' and Arnott, D. W., The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_language
On Fula writing: the Latin orthography with the special letters ɓ and ɗ (implosives), ƴ (a glottalized y) and ŋ; the older Ajami (Arabic) tradition; and the Adlam script, created for Fula in 1989 by the brothers Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry of Guinea — cf. 'Fula alphabets.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_alphabets
On Gunalchéesh (‘thank you’, carrying the sense ‘it would not be possible without you’) and the use of ‘how are you?’ as a greeting where Tlingit traditionally had none: “10 Tlingit Words We Should All Be Using in Southeast Alaska,” Peter Stanton (Medium), and community phrase lists. https://peterwstanton.medium.com/10-tlingit-words-we-should-all-be-using-in-southeast-alaska-940034322222
On Hangul as a featural alphabet (consonant shapes modelling the speech organs; vowels from heaven/earth/human strokes), its 24 basic letters and syllable-block structure, and its promulgation in 1446 under King Sejong, cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and 'Hangul.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul
On Igbo (Asụsụ Igbo) — a Volta–Niger (Niger–Congo) language of southeastern Nigeria with ~30 million speakers; its standard Önwu orthography (Latin, 1962), including the dot-below vowels ị [ɪ], ụ [ʊ], ọ [ɔ] and ṅ [ŋ]; and its three phonemic tones (high, mid, low, marked with acute/grave accents) — cf. 'Igbo language' and Emenanjọ, Nolue, A Grammar of Contemporary Igbo (Oxford/Port Harcourt: M&J Grand Orbit, 2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_language
On Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) as an Austronesian language with SVO order, no grammatical gender, no obligatory plural inflection (plurality shown by reduplication, buku-buku 'books'), and no verb conjugation for person or tense, cf. Sneddon, James N., Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1996); and 'Indonesian language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_language
On Japanese basic word order (Subject–Object–Verb, verb-final; topic-prominent) and the particle system (は topic, が subject, を object, に goal/time, で location of action, の possessive), cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge University Press, 1990); and 'Japanese particles.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_particles
On Japanese phonology — five vowels /a i u e o/, predominantly open (consonant–vowel) syllables, and mora-timed rhythm (long vowels counting as two morae) — cf. 'Japanese phonology'; Shibatani, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge, 1990). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology
On Korean speech levels / grammaticalised politeness (합니다체 formal-polite, 해요체 informal-polite, 반말 plain), cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), ch. on honorifics and speech levels. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_speech_levels
On Kyrgyz rounding (labial) vowel harmony extending to low vowels (the four-way plural), cf. Lars Johanson & Eva A. Csato, eds., The Turkic Languages (London: Routledge, 1998), the Kyrgyz chapter. https://www.routledge.com/The-Turkic-Languages/Johanson-Csato/p/book/9780415412612
On Nengone (p'ene nengone, also Iwatenu/Maré) — an Austronesian (Loyalty Islands) Kanak language of Maré and Tiga with ~8,700 speakers, a French regional language and baccalauréat option, regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK); its Latin script with no single standard spelling; and its three social registers (Pene Animac everyday, P'ene Iwateno formal, P'ene Egesho for conflict) — cf. 'Nengone language' and the ALK. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nengone_language
On New Caledonian French (français calédonien / néo-calédonien) as a dialect of French — based on Metropolitan French, the territory's official language and near-universal lingua franca, with influences from Kanak languages, Australian English, Bislama, Tayo Creole, Tahitian, Wallisian, Javanese and Vietnamese — cf. 'New Caledonian French.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonian_French
On Oromo (Afaan Oromoo) — an Eastern Cushitic (Afroasiatic) language, the most widely spoken language in Ethiopia and the fourth-most spoken in Africa, written since 1991 in the Latin-based Qubee orthography (with digraphs ch, dh [implosive], ny, ph, sh, ts, zh); and its contrastive vowel length (doubled vowels: hara 'lake' vs haaraa 'new') and gemination (doubled consonants: badaa 'bad' vs baddaa 'highland') — cf. 'Oromo language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oromo_language
On Paicî's contrastive tone — three registers (high, mid, low), unusual for Oceanic languages, with tone often belonging to the word — and its verb–object–subject word order, cf. Rivierre, Jean-Claude, 'Tons et segments du discours en langue paicî' (Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 69, 1974); and Rivierre, Dictionnaire paicî–français (Paris: SELAF, 1983). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paic%C3%AE_language
On Pashto's past-tense ergativity (verb agrees with the object) and the parallel aspect-conditioned ergative "ne" construction in Hindi/Urdu, see "Pashto grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar
On Pashto's past-tense ergativity (verb agrees with the object) and the parallel aspect-conditioned ergative construction ("ne") in Punjabi's transitive perfective, see "Pashto grammar," Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar, and "Punjabi grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_grammar
On Pashto's retained past-tense ergativity versus Persian's shift to a nominative-accusative system, see "Ergative construction," Encyclopædia Iranica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction/. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction/
On Persian noun plurals (-hā and animate -ān) and the absence of grammatical gender on nouns, see "Persian nouns," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_nouns. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_nouns
On Persian's lack of grammatical gender, its SOV word order, the ezafe (kasra) construction, and the absence of an ergative/"ne"-type past construction, see "Persian grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_grammar
On Tahitian (Reo Tahiti / Reo Māʻohi) phonology and orthography — five vowels distinguishing length (marked with the macron, tārava) and the consonants f, h, m, n, p, r, t, v plus the phonemic glottal stop (ʻeta) — as standardised by the Académie Tahitienne (Fare Vānaʻa), the recognised language authority; cf. 'Tahitian language.' The exact shape of the ʻeta is not fully fixed; this guide uses the turned-comma form and flags it for review. https://www.farevanaa.pf/
On Tahitian verb–subject–object word order and the pre-verbal tense–aspect markers (ʻua completive, tē … nei present-progressive, e future/imperfective) and the articles (te 'the', te mau plural), cf. Tryon, Darrell T., Conversational Tahitian (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970); and 'Tahitian language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahitian_language
On the 15-phoneme system (ten consonants incl. ng and wh, five vowels), and the macron (tohutō) marking phonemic vowel length, see “Māori language” and Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori. https://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/
On the 23-letter Roman alphabet (I and V doing double duty as vowel and consonant), macrons as a modern editorial aid, and the restored classical vs. ecclesiastical pronunciations, see “Latin spelling and pronunciation” and W. Sidney Allen, Vox Latina. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_spelling_and_pronunciation
On the 24-letter Greek alphabet, the rough/smooth breathings, and the polytonic pitch-accent system (acute, grave, circumflex), see “Greek alphabet” and W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet
On the 29-letter alphabet with digraphs (ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, rh, th), w and y as vowels, and the regular, largely phonemic orthography, see “Welsh orthography.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_orthography
On the Arabic definite article al- and its assimilation before sun letters (e.g. ash-shams) versus moon letters (al-qamar), see "Sun and moon letters," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters
On the Australian-English anglicisms in New Caledonian French (paddock, run, station, stock, creek, tata, etc.), cf. Gay, Jean-Christophe, « Influences australiennes en Nouvelle-Calédonie » (HAL-SHS). https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03590330v1/document
On the Drehu numeral system — a quinary structure: tripi '5', the 6–9 forms ending in -ngömen ('on the next hand'), and luepi '10' (lit. 2×5) — cf. Omniglot, 'Drehu numbers' (data from Wolfgang Kuhl); and Lenormand, Maurice, Dictionnaire de la langue de Lifou: le qene drehu (Nouméa, 1999). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/drehu.htm
On the heavy borrowing of Persian vocabulary and the Perso-Arabic script into Urdu, see Encyclopædia Britannica, "Urdu language," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language
On the Korean polite past tense (verb stem + -았어요 after a bright ㅏ/ㅗ vowel, -었어요 otherwise, 하다 → 했어요), the question words, and the two negations (pre-verbal 안 'not' and 못 'cannot', plus the long form -지 않다), cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chapters on verbal morphology and negation; and 'Korean verbs.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_verbs
On the Manchu alphabet, its vertical Mongolian-derived letters, and Dahai’s 1632 tongki fuka (“dots and circles”) reform: “Manchu alphabet,” Wikipedia / Omniglot. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_alphabet
On the medial diglossia of German-speaking Switzerland (spoken Swiss German / Alemannic dialect used in nearly all everyday situations vs written Swiss Standard German) and the absence of any official, standardised Swiss-German orthography, cf. Russ, Charles V. J., The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey (London: Routledge, 1990); and 'Swiss German.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_German
On the Nengone numeral system — quinary (sedongò '5'; 6–9 built as 'sedong ne …'; ruenin '10') — and the counting classifiers (ehna for plural animates, ko for a precise quantity, so for inanimates and dead animals), cf. Omniglot, 'Nengone numbers.' https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/nengone.htm
On the Paicî numerals — caapwi (1), êrêilû (2), êrêcié (3), êrêpëpé (4) — and the body-based counting system (using î 'hand', â 'foot', and âboro 'man' for larger counts), cf. 'How to count in Paicî' (Languages and Numbers) and the LDD Paicî Language Snapshot. Regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK). https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-paici/en/pri/
On the Persian alphabet (32 letters including پ چ ژ گ) and the Urdu script being a later modification of it, see "Persian alphabet," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_alphabet, and Omniglot, "Urdu," https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_alphabet
On the polite verb paradigm (-ます present, -ました past, -ません negative, -ませんでした past-negative) and the two adjective classes (い-adjectives, which inflect — 高い → 高くない — and な-adjectives, which take だ/です and じゃない), cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge University Press, 1990), chapters on verbal and adjectival morphology; and 'Japanese verb conjugation.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_verb_conjugation
On the pre-verbal aspect/time particles sudah (completed), sedang (in progress), akan (future) and belum ('not yet') — used instead of tense conjugation — cf. Sneddon (1996), who distinguishes these aspect markers from adjuncts of time. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_grammar
On the Romanized Popular Alphabet: developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953, dominant in the diaspora, and marking tone with a syllable-final consonant letter (-b high, -j high-falling, -v mid-rising, -s low, -g mid-falling breathy, -m low creaky, -d low-rising sandhi, unmarked mid), with syllables written consonant + vowel + tone. Recorded in the in-repo Hmong research dossier from the standard descriptive literature and dedicated RPA sources. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet
On the Semitic triliteral root-and-pattern morphology underlying Arabic word formation, see Encyclopædia Britannica, "Semitic languages: Morphology," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages
On the Shahmukhi (Perso-Arabic) script for Punjabi and its retroflex letters, see "Shahmukhi," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahmukhi; for Pashto's script see CeLCAR, Indiana University, "Pashto," https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahmukhi
On the shared Neo-Shtokavian (Eastern Herzegovinian) dialect base of Standard Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, and on the yat reflex, lexical choices and script preference as the principal points of formal difference. Summarised in the in-repo Croatian research dossier from the standard descriptive literature and cross-checked against the Serbo-Croatian phonology overview cited at note 10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shtokavian
On the three scripts and their division of labour — hiragana for native words and grammatical elements (particles, verb/adjective endings), katakana for loanwords and foreign names, and logographic kanji for content-word roots — cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and 'Japanese writing system.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_writing_system
On the two Korean numeral systems (native Korean 하나/둘/셋… vs Sino-Korean 일/이/삼…) and their division of labour (native for counting things, people, age and the hour; Sino-Korean for dates, money, minutes, phone numbers and numbers ≥100), cf. 'Korean numerals'; National Institute of Korean Language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_numerals
On the two numeral series — Sino-Japanese (一 ichi, 二 ni, 三 san …) used with counters and for most numbers, and the native series (一つ hitotsu, 二つ futatsu …) used to count general objects up to ten — cf. 'Japanese numerals.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_numerals
On the Urdu alphabet being a Perso-Arabic abjad derived from the Persian (and thence Arabic) script, written right-to-left, see Omniglot, "Urdu," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm
On the very large Arabic loan layer in Persian (and Persian's lack of grammatical gender and broken plurals), see "Arabic Language v. Arabic Elements in Persian," Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arabic-v/. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arabic-v/
On the writing systems — the indigenous Tifinagh script (from the ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet) and Neo-Tifinagh as standardised by IRCAM (33 letters, the sole official script for Tamazight in Morocco since 2003, written left-to-right) — alongside Latin and Arabic transcriptions — cf. 'Tifinagh.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifinagh
On variety: Hmong Daw (White Hmong, ISO mww) and Mong Leng (Green/Blue Hmong, ISO hnj) as mutually intelligible varieties of West Hmongic within Hmong–Mien, the US CDC comparison to British versus American English, and Mong Leeg's lack of the voiceless nasal /m̥/ that White Hmong has. Recorded in the in-repo Hmong research dossier. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_language
Optimot — consultas linguísticas. motor de busca de gramática, ortografia e vocabulário https://aplicacions.llengua.gencat.cat/llc/AppJava/index.html
Oromia Language & Cultural Academy. Qubee and useful phrases https://oromiaacademy.wordpress.com/oromo-language/
ORTN / Télé Sahel — Niger's national broadcaster. National-language programming including Zarma. https://www.ortn.ne/
Otto Jespersen, An International Language (1928), digitized by the Austrian National Library. https://viewer.onb.ac.at/10B876CB
Otto Jespersen, An International Language (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1928). Jespersen's founding presentation of Novial, with the full grammar (articles, invariable adjectives, the sal/-ed/ha tense system, the bli passive, pronouns and prepositions) and vocabulary. https://archive.org/details/AILjespersen
Oumarou Ganda's films (Cabascabo, 1968; Le Wazzou polygame, 1971). Pioneering Nigerien cinema with Zarma dialogue — Le Wazzou polygame won the first FESPACO grand prize. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oumarou_Ganda
Overzicht van isiXhosa. Achtergrond over kliks, klassen en spelling. https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_(taal)
Overzicht van isiZulu. Oriëntatie op kliks, klassen en spelling. https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoeloe_(taal)
Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/40413
Paideia Institute — Living Latin (self-paced). free 60-unit introductory course https://www.paideiainstitute.org/living_latin
Pandharipande, Rajeshwari V. Marathi. Descriptive Grammars. London: Routledge, 1997, pp. 44–51, 274, 335. The obligative and optative ergative environments, the register restriction on -s, and the gharāt / gharī locative contrast. https://www.routledge.com/Marathi/Pandharipande/p/book/9780415006859
Panorámica del español mexicano: tuteo y ausencia de voseo salvo en Chiapas, ustedes como único plural, uso de usted, diminutivo -ito/-ita y variante norteña -illo, sufijo enfático -le de posible influencia náhuatl, y préstamos náhuatl (guajolote, papalote, jitomate, elote, cuate). Véase «Mexican Spanish». https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Spanish
Parf Edhellen — Elvish Dictionary. Community Elvish dictionary with search, Sindarin / Quenya entries, and a forum for learner questions. https://www.elfdict.com/
parla.cat. cursos gratuite de catalano de tote le nivellos (Generalitat de Catalunya) https://www.parla.cat/
Parla.cat. The official free online course from the Generalitat de Catalunya, from A1 to C1. https://parla.cat/
Parma Eldalamberon / Vinyar Tengwar — Elvish Linguistic Fellowship. The journals that publish Tolkien's primary manuscripts, including key Sindarin texts and grammar fragments. https://www.elvish.org/
Parma Eldalamberon and Vinyar Tengwar, the journals of the Elvish Linguistic Fellowship (eds. C. Gilson, C.F. Hostetter, P. Wynne, A.R. Smith, et al.). These print Tolkien's own manuscript grammars, declensions (e.g. the Plotz Declension) and word-lists.
Passamaquoddy (Peskotomuhkati) is a dialect of the Maliseet-Passamaquoddy Eastern Algonquian language of Maine/New Brunswick, critically endangered. See “Malecite–Passamaquoddy language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malecite%E2%80%93Passamaquoddy_language
Paul Newman, The Hausa Language: An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), Introduction; cf. Philip J. Jaggar, Hausa (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2001). https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300081893/the-hausa-language/
Paul Schachter & Fe T. Otanes, Tagalog Reference Grammar (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), Introduction. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520049437/tagalog-reference-grammar
Paul Strack, Eldamo — A Tolkien-Language Database (eldamo.org, 2008– ). Comprehensive lexicon citing the original Tolkien source for every attested word; used to cross-verify vocabulary and case/verb paradigms.
Peace Corps Botswana. Setswana language training manual (public-domain) — greeting protocol (O tsogile jang?), the attested negation pair Ke lapile / Ga ke a lapa, the noun-class transparency argument (Mädchen contrast), and the mabele tone warning. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Setswana
Peace Corps Georgian (درس‌های صوتی). درس‌های پایه‌ی رایگان با فایل صوتی. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Georgian/
Peace Corps Niger — cours de haoussa. Manuel et audio pour débutants, contexte nigérien. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Hausa/
Peace Corps Niger. Zarma language training materials (public-domain course PDFs and audio), Live Lingua archive — greeting protocols, market dialogues, practical vocabulary. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Zarma
Peace Corps Wolof manuals. Free, thorough PDF courses written for volunteers heading to Senegal; the gold standard for self-study. https://www.peacecorps.gov/educators/resources/
Penobscot is a dialect of Eastern Abenaki (Eastern Algonquian) of the Penobscot River, Maine; dormant and revitalizing from records. See “Penobscot language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penobscot_language
Perseus Digital Library. texts with word-by-word parsing and dictionary lookup https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/
Peskotomuhkati–Wolastoqey (Passamaquoddy-Maliseet) Language Portal, pmportal.org — the openly accessible online dictionary and archive, continually expanded by Native speakers, educators and linguists. https://pmportal.org/
Peter Eisenberg, Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik, Bd. 2: Der Satz, 4th ed. (Stuttgart: Metzler, 2013): in a German main clause the finite verb stands in second position (V2). https://www.metzlerverlag.de/
Peter S. Baker, Introduction to Old English. companion site “Old English Aerobics,” free exercises https://oldenglishaerobics.net/
PHOIBLE — Kannada phoneme inventory. The documented sound inventory of Kannada. https://phoible.org/languages/nucl1305
PHOIBLE Online. "Inventories for Breton (bret1244)." Accessed July 17, 2026. Three non-identical inventories: SPA 157 with 42 segments (Ternes 1970); UPSID 260 with 45 (Ternes 1970; Bothorel et al. 1982); EA 2584 for Bothoa with 66 (Iosad 2013). The Bothoa record is explicitly locality-specific and is 21–24 segments larger than the two general records. https://phoible.org/languages/bret1244
Phrases utiles en haoussa (Omniglot). Répertoire de phrases courantes avec prononciation. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/hausa.php
Phrases utiles en wolof (Omniglot). Répertoire de phrases courantes avec prononciation. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/wolof.php
Piscataway (Conoy) is an Eastern Algonquian language of the Maryland Potomac, closely related to Nanticoke, dormant and thinly documented. See “Nanticoke language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanticoke_language
Platts & DSAL Urdu dictionaries. The classic scholarly Urdu/Hindi–English dictionaries online. https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/
Pleco (중국어 사전 앱). 필기·음성 입력을 지원하는 대표 중국어 사전 앱. https://www.pleco.com/
Pledari Grond. Das grosse Wörterbuch Deutsch–Rumantsch Grischun, online und gratis. https://www.pledarigrond.ch/
Plínio A. Barbosa and Eleonora C. Albano. “Brazilian Portuguese (Illustrations of the IPA).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Standard reference IPA Illustration of Brazilian Portuguese. Bibliographic anchor: Journal of the International Phonetic Association, vol. 34, issue 2, pp. 227–232 (2004). Cited as the canonical phonetic description of the variety. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/brazilian-portuguese/8EE69D52AE2D06C1EDA2841EA2E14FEC
Poedjosoedarmo, Soepomo. “Javanese Speech Levels.” Indonesia 6 (October 1968): 54–81. Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/53445
PONS 사전. 신뢰도 높은 독일어-영어/한국어 사전. 예문과 숙어 검색에 유용합니다. https://www.pons.com/
pons.com. Umfangreiches zweisprachiges Wörterbuch für Deutschsprachige. Deckt Alltagsvokabular und Fachterminologie ab. Auch als App verfügbar. pons.com https://de.pons.com/japanisch-deutsch
Portner, Pak and Zanuttini: speaker-addressee relations https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language/article/abs/speakeraddressee-relation-at-the-syntaxsemantics-interface/3BE699D356905C539DDCF6BEFF468EF0
Power, Justin M., Quinto-Pozos, David, & Law, Danny. Comparative use of HamNoSys for a basic-vocabulary database across thirteen signed languages, 2022 — evidence for comparative applications and for variation in transcription time and inter-transcriber agreement. https://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/hamnosys/
Powhatan (Virginia Algonquian) is an Eastern Algonquian language of Tidewater Virginia, extinct in the late 18th century, known from early records (Smith, Strachey). See “Powhatan language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powhatan_language
Praat manual, "Phonetic symbols" pages (consonants read in full; vowels/diacritics located). Confirms: draw IPA in the Picture window / TextGrid editor; type Unicode directly OR use backslash trigraphs; requires Charis and/or Doulos SIL fonts. Verified examples \l~ = ɫ, \hj = ɧ. Documents the second-letter mnemonic (t turned, c capital/curled, s script, - barred, l with leg, i inverted, j left tail; f serifed Greek; retroflex period; traditional ŋ/ð/ʃ/ʒ spellings). TextGrids store Unicode, not trigraphs. https://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/manual/Phonetic_symbols.html
Preply. a comparable alternative to iTalki; well-regarded by both tutors & learners. https://preply.com/
Press, Ian J. A Grammar of Modern Breton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1986. DOI 10.1515/9783110884975. Publisher metadata verified; full chapter content was not accessible for this build, so the work is cited for bibliography and onward routing only and no paradigm has been reproduced from it. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110884975/html?lang=en
Pri la kvin-vokala sistemo, la (preskaŭ) fonetika ortografio kaj la akcentreguloj, vidu “Spanish orthography” kaj “Spanish phonology.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_orthography
Pri la umlaŭtoj (ä ö ü), la ß, la majuskligo de substantivoj kaj la prononcaj reguloj, vidu “German orthography” kaj “Standard German phonology.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography
ProfeDeELE. Atividades, vídeos e fichas de gramática de espanhol como língua estrangeira, organizados por nível. https://www.profedeele.es/
Programa de Educación Intercultural Bilingüe (PEIB), the principal and limited Chilean state language-in-education policy for Indigenous languages, discussed in Lagos and recorded in the in-repo research dossier. Mapudungun is not generally used as a language of instruction. https://www.mineduc.cl/
pt.pons.com. Alemão-Português — Dicionário online completo com exemplos de uso, conjugações e áudio. Excelente para verificar géneros e casos. pt.pons.com https://pt.pons.com/traducao/alemao-portugues
Public Radio of Armenia. News and broadcasting for authentic Eastern Armenian listening. https://www.armradio.am/
Pugh, Stefan M. & Ian Press, Ukrainian: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1999) — bảng chữ cái và giá trị âm (г xát vs ґ tắc), biến cách danh từ, phát âm đều đặn. Sách tham khảo ngữ pháp học thuật. https://www.routledge.com/Ukrainian-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Pugh-Press/p/book/9780415150309
Pullum, Geoffrey K., & William A. Ladusaw. Phonetic Symbol Guide. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996 (xxxvii+320 pp.; ISBN 9780226685359) — the plurality of Americanist usage; symbol histories and cross-references (imprint verified). https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3618847.html
Qazaqstan RTV (Qazaqstan Ulttyq arnasy). Kazak devlet televizyonu: haber ve programlar, dinleme pratigi. https://qazaqstan.tv/
Queen's University Belfast research repository. "Breton-language media: opportunities and challenges." Accessed August 4, 2026. Survey of the Breton-language media landscape, identifying the newspaper Ya! and the general magazine Bremañ as the most-cited Breton-language publications, followed by the literary magazine Al Liamm and the generalist Al Lanv (Quimper, four issues a year); also records the children's magazine Louarnig-Rouzig, the television outlets Brezhoweb, France 3 Breizh, France 3 Iroise, TV Breizh and TV Rennes, and the radio stations Arvorig FM, France Bleu Armorique, France Bleu Breizh-Izel, Radio Bro Gwened, Radio Kerne and Radio Kreiz Breizh. https://pure.qub.ac.uk/files/356848507/final.pdf
R. H. Robins, The Yurok Language: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon (University of California Press, 1958), and A. Garrett, Basic Yurok / 'Learning Yurok: An Outline of Grammar' (UC Berkeley Yurok Language Project), on the Yurok pronominal-prefix paradigm ('ne- 1st, k'e- 2nd, 'we-/'ue- 3rd) used for noun possession and for subjunctive/naming verbs. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~yurok/web/LY/LY-4.3.html
r/Cantonese. active community for questions, resources, & general Cantonese content. https://www.reddit.com/r/Cantonese/
r/ithkuil (Reddit). Community for questions, translations and discussion of all versions of the language. https://www.reddit.com/r/ithkuil/
Radio & Television Tonga. 地道的汤加语广播电视，用于听力（请核实可用性）。 https://tongabroadcasting.tv/
Radio Australia / Radio New Zealand Pacific — Samoan-language programming. Regular Samoan-language news and current-affairs broadcasts serving Pacific diaspora audiences. https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news
Radio Botswana (RB1) — national Setswana broadcasting. News bulletins and talk in formal broadcast Setswana — prime shadowing material. https://www.btv.gov.bw/
Rádios e TV de Cabo Verde (RTC). Audição autêntica do dia a dia. https://gl.wikipedia.org/
Raguileo Lincopil, Anselmo. Alfabeto Mapuche Unificado / grafemario Raguileo. 1982. The one-sound-one-grapheme writing system, roughly 26 graphemes, devised by the Mapuche linguist Anselmo Raguileo and widely diffused in Mapuche community use; the system in which English Wiktionary's Mapudungun entries are predominantly written. Consulted here via the in-repo Mapudungun research dossier, which records its date, grapheme count and design principle. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselmo_Raguileo
RAI (radio si televiziune). Radio si televiziune publica italiana in streaming: stiri, seriale, podcasturi. https://www.raiplay.it/
Raihan Muhamedowa, Kazakh: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 2016), Introduction, Phonology & Writing System. https://www.routledge.com/Kazakh-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Muhamedowa/p/book/9781138828254
Rajeshwari V. Pandharipande, Marathi, Descriptive Grammars (London: Routledge, 1997); Ramesh Vaman Dhongde and Kashi Wali, Marathi, London Oriental and African Language Library 13 (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009) — via the LinguaCommons Marathi research dossier. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mara1378
Ramona Goenczoel-Davies, Romanian: An Essential Grammar (London: Routledge, 2008), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/Romanian-An-Essential-Grammar/Gonczol-Davies/p/book/9780415437998
Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung, Deutsche Rechtschreibung: Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis (2024); the German alphabet is the 26 Latin letters plus ä, ö, ü and ß. Cf. Duden, Die deutsche Rechtschreibung, 28th ed. (Berlin: Dudenverlag, 2020). https://www.rechtschreibrat.com/
Rebecca L. Oxford, "Language Learning Strategies: An Update," ERIC Digest, 2011, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED523722.pdf. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED523722.pdf
Reconstructed Proto-Germanic vocabulary and grammar (three genders, dual number, ~six cases, strong ablaut vs weak dental-suffix verbs). Forms per Guus Kroonen, Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (Brill, 2013), and the Wiktionary Proto-Germanic reconstruction corpus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language
Région Bretagne. "Transmission et usage du breton et du gallo : résultats de l'étude sociolinguistique 2024." Accessed July 17, 2026. TMO survey commissioned by the Brittany Region; 8,336 residents interviewed by telephone between 30 August and 8 November 2024 across the five departments of historical Brittany. 2.7% reported speaking Breton "very well" or "quite well", extrapolated to approximately 107,000 speakers; mean speaker age 58.5 against 70 in the 2018 study; 16% attributed acquisition to family transmission and 78% to education. Treated throughout as a survey estimate of self-reported proficiency, not a census count. https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/
Reid, Anna. The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia, ch. "The Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta." London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1399-8. Popular history, used for the penal-colony era and the Stalin-era decline narrative; corroborated by the ethnographic reference literature. https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/56312/the-shamans-coat-by-anna-reid
Rekhta. A vast archive of Urdu poetry with script, transliteration and meanings — a joy for learners. https://www.rekhta.org/
RESEARCH/Ojibwe/culture-and-community-context.md and learning-resources.md (compiled 2026-07-17): revitalization programs, immersion schools, and community language use.
RESEARCH/Ojibwe/dialects-and-variation.md and orthography-and-scripts.md (compiled 2026-07-17): the Ojibwe dialect continuum, double-vowel Latin orthography, and syllabics use in some Canadian communities.
RESEARCH/Ojibwe/grammar-and-syntax.md (compiled 2026-07-17): animate/inanimate noun class, the four verb classes (vai/vii/vta/vti), dependent (kinship) nouns, and preverbs.
RESEARCH/Ojibwe/phonology-and-pronunciation.md and common-learner-difficulties.md (compiled 2026-07-17): sound inventory and the double-vowel system, cross-checked against the Ojibwe People's Dictionary's own class codes.
Reverso / WordReference. Dictionaries with real example sentences and forums. https://dictionary.reverso.net/english-italian/
RFI Haoussa. Actualités en haoussa : du haoussa réel à lire et écouter. https://www.rfi.fr/ha/
rfi.fr/fr/lf. Radio France Internationale (Français facile) — Radio pubblica francese con emissioni in francese standard chiaro. Il servizio Français facile offre articoli in francese semplificato con audio. rfi.fr/fr/lf https://www.rfi.fr/fr/lf/
Richard R. Day and J. Bamford, Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Extensive%20Reading%20in%20the%20Second%20Language%20Classroom%20Day%20Bamford
Richard Schmidt, "The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning," Applied Linguistics 11, no. 2 (1990): 129–158, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129
Rigg, Jonathan. A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java. Batavia: Lange & Co., 1862. The first substantial Sundanese–English dictionary; the source, via Omniglot, of the traditional numeral forms used in this guide's vocabulary deck. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese_language#Bibliography
Robson, Stuart O. Javanese Grammar for Students. 2nd rev. ed. Clayton, Vic.: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 2002. ISBN 9781876924126. The standard English-language learner grammar; consulted here through the LinguaCommons Javanese research dossier. https://books.google.com/books?id=rwVIAAAAMAAJ
Romanizations in this guide follow the Revised Romanization of Korean, the official system of the Republic of Korea promulgated by the National Institute of Korean Language in 2000. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean
Rosidi, Ajip. Mengenang hidup orang lain: sejumlah obituari. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2010. ISBN 9789799102225. Cited via Wikipedia for the continuing use of Pegon script in Sundanese Islamic literature. https://books.google.com/books?id=9eou96EnD2gC
Rosstat (Russian Federal State Statistics Service). Vserossiyskaya perepis naseleniya 2020 [2020/2021 All-Russian census]. The 1,300 figure for Nivkh. An official statistic and a poor fluency measure: self-reported knowledge, on a methodology that differs from the 2010 census. https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul
RTC — radio y TV de Cabo Verde. radio y TV de Cabo Verde intermedio — Escucha auténtica del día a día. https://www.rtc.cv/
RTR — Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha. Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha intermédiaire — Radio et télévision en romanche pour l'écoute authentique. https://www.rtr.ch/
RTS (Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise). Radio et télé sénégalaises : du wolof réel à écouter. https://www.rts.sn/
RTVE. La télévision publique espagnole : journaux, documentaires et séries pour une écoute authentique. https://www.rtve.es/
Rûdaw / Kurdistan24. Kurdish-language news media for authentic reading and listening. https://www.rudaw.net/
Run-1 identification note (2026-07-16): searches surfaced no authoritative standards document titled exactly 'Slavic Phonetic Alphabet.' The term denotes the Slavicist transcription tradition (dialectology, etymology, comparative grammar), which is real and High-confidence, but plural — its referent (OLA atlas, national dialectological notations, or Slavicist scientific transliteration) must be pinned per work. Negative-result methodological record. https://www.slavatlas.org/
Russell Jones (general editor), Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007); kajian KBBI mencatat 800+ serapan Arab. Lih. juga 'Arabic loanwords in Indonesian'. https://www.worldcat.org/title/loan-words-in-indonesian-and-malay/oclc/166872599
Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) institutional language profile for Ket, 2005. Northern/Middle/Southern dialects, location, and historical classification proposals. RESEARCH/Ket/language-profile.md and dialects-and-variation.md [K02], direct-read 2026-07-17.
S. O. Robson, Javanese Grammar for Students, 2nd rev. ed. (Clayton, Vic.: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 2002), and Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, "Javanese Speech Levels," Indonesia 6 (October 1968): 54-81 — the two works underpinning the register labels used on these cards, via the LinguaCommons in-repo Javanese research dossier. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/java1254
Sabata-mpho Mokae — contemporary Setswana fiction. Ga ke Modisa (multiple SA literary awards); biography of Plaatje. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabata-mpho_Mokae
Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, Gaelic higher-education institution, accessed 2026-07-26. https://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/
Sable, Trudy & Francis, Bernie (2012). The Language of This Land, Mi’kma’ki. Sydney, NS: Cape Breton University Press — a Mi’kmaw linguist’s account of the language, its structure, and its ties to place. https://mikmawarchives.ca/collections/language
Ságastallamin — the Sámi languages (UiT). academic overview from the Arctic University of Norway https://site.uit.no/sagastallamin/the-sami-languages/
Sambahsa (English Wikipedia) — the name's meaning (sam + bahsa; Mundialect), the PIE basis and multi-family vocabulary, July 2007 release and eight years of prior work, the 26-letter alphabet and SPT, 22 consonants / 9 vowels, fixed regular stress, the four cases with declension compulsory only for pronouns, all prepositions triggering the accusative, the four genders including 'undetermined', two numbers, the three irregular verbs ses/habe/woide, verbs listed by bare stem, the present/past person-ending table, the ablaut past tense, the 19,500+ dictionary entries (April 2021), the 2018 ISO-code rejection, the greetings phrasebook and the list of literary translations. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambahsa
Sambahsa–English dictionary. The large (19,500+ entry) lexicon; verbs are listed by bare stem. https://www.scribd.com/doc/39063111/Sambahsa-English-Dictionary
Sanders, William H. & W. E. Fay, Vocabulary of the Umbundu Language (Boston: 1885; Internet Archive) — dicionário Inglês–Umbundu, fonte do vocabulário de substantivos e verbos. Domínio público. https://archive.org/details/vocabularyofumbu00sand
Savel'eva, V. N., and Ch. M. Taksami. Nivkhsko-russkii slovar' [Nivkh–Russian dictionary]. Moscow, 1970. Named by English Wiktionary as a principal source of its Nivkh entries, and therefore the ultimate source of much of this guide's vocabulary. Not consulted directly; the in-repo dossier flags it as located but unread. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:About_Nivkh
Sayuri Hayakawa and Viorica Marian, "Consequences of Multilingualism for Neural Architecture," Behavioral and Brain Functions 15, no. 6 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z
Schiffman: Standard Spoken Tamil（双言现象）. 文白双言与标准口语泰米尔的最佳论述。 https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/public/stantam/STANTAM.HTM
Scotland's Census 2022 (National Records of Scotland), reported via “Scottish Gaelic,” Wikipedia — 69,701 able to speak Gaelic; ~130,161 with some skills; 3,551 with Gaelic as main language; first census increase in over a century. UNESCO Atlas classes Scottish Gaelic as ‘definitely endangered’. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic
Sealaska Heritage Institute, “SHI’s Language Department,” on its Tlingit revitalisation work, including the language endowment and mentor–apprentice immersion programme; Alaska made its twenty Native languages official in 2014. https://sealaskaheritage.org/shi-language-department/
Secretaría de Políticas Lingüísticas (Paraguay). Materiales oficiales, normativa y publicaciones en guaraní. https://www.spl.gov.py/
Setswana Bible (1857 Moffat translation and successors). One of Africa's first complete Bibles — parallel text for study. https://www.bible.com/languages/tsn
Séverine Hubscher-Davidson, "The Psychological Benefits of Multilingualism," OpenLearn, The Open University, March 13, 2019, https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/learning-languages/the-benefits-of-multilingualism. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/learning-languages/the-benefits-of-multilingualism
Severo, Igor / Rio & Learn. “Brazilian Slang Dictionary — A Dica do Dia.” Rio & Learn Portuguese School. Accessed 2026-07-18. Source for the attested colloquial/texting abbreviations (vc, blz, vlw, flw, tb, td, hj, pq, qnd, sdds, bj, gnt, cmg, mds, mn, kra, kd, tranq, fds, add) and the Brazilian internet laugh conventions (kkkkkk, rsrsrs, huehuehue). Reliability: moderate (learner-oriented language school). https://rioandlearn.com/brazilian-slang-dictionary/
Shared Eastern Algonquian features (polysynthesis, animate/inanimate gender, obviation) are described in the LinguaCommons Eastern Algonquian family overview and in Goddard’s Algonquian scholarship. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages
Shiraishi, Hidetoshi, with Galina Lok. Sound Materials of the Nivkh Language. Sapporo Gakuin University, 2002–. "The World's Largest Sound Archive of the Nivkh Language on the Web." Accessed August 4, 2026: the index advertises volume 11 (Natal'ia Dem'ianovna Vorbon) and sample sound files for palatalization and consonant mutation; last modified 2015-07-05. The in-repo dossier records eight volumes totalling roughly 5.5 hours. http://ext-web.edu.sgu.ac.jp/hidetos/
Shiraishi, Hidetoshi. "Nivkh Consonant Alternation Does Not Involve Hardening." Journal of Chiba University Eurasian Society 3 (2000): 89–119; and Topics in Nivkh Phonology. PhD diss., University of Groningen, 2006. The current specialist analysis of initial consonant alternation and of palatalization. Cited via summary: a fetch of the 2000 PDF returned empty content during the dossier's compilation. https://ext-web.edu.sgu.ac.jp/hidetos/HTML/nivkhcaa4.pdf
Shona overview. A solid orientation to dialects, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shona_language
Shriberg, Lawrence D., & Raymond D. Kent. Clinical Phonetics, 4th ed. Pearson (ISBN 9780137021062). Publisher description confirms scope: consonant/vowel/diphthong symbols, narrow-transcription diacritics, suprasegmentals, tested skills teaching. The standard US textbook for training SLPs in clinical transcription. https://www.pluralpublishing.com/publications/clinical-phonetics
SIL International — ISO 639-3 Registration Authority. “ISO 639-3 identifier documentation: por (Portuguese).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Confirms ISO 639-3 = por, scope = Individual, type = Living. No macrolanguage; Brazilian Portuguese has no separate ISO 639-3 code. https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/por
SIL International (ISO 639-3 Registration Authority), code jbo for Lojban. https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jbo
SIL International (ISO 639-3 Registration Authority), code lfn for Lingua Franca Nova (assigned January 2008). https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/lfn
SIL International / Unicode Consortium: IPA in computing — the IPA Extensions Unicode block and successors; SIL fonts (Doulos SIL, Charis SIL) and Bitstream/DejaVu. Font facts anchored to the official chart page's font discussion [1]. https://software.sil.org/doulos/
SIL International. “ISO 639-3 — smo.” https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/smo. RESEARCH/Samoan/sources.json [S02], direct-read 2026-08-06.
Simon Ager, “Colour words in Marathi,” Omniglot, accessed 26 July 2026. https://omniglot.com/language/colours/marathi.htm
Simon Ager, "Kyrgyz language and alphabets," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirghiz.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirghiz.htm
Simon Ager, “Marathi numbers,” Omniglot: The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages, accessed 26 July 2026. https://omniglot.com/language/numbers/marathi.htm
Simon Ager, "Numbers in Interlingua," Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/interlingua.htm. Cardinal and ordinal numerals 0–1000, citing languagesandnumbers.com. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/interlingua.htm
Simon Ager, "Numbers in Interlingue / Occidental," Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/interlingue.htm. Cardinal and ordinal numerals 0–1,000,000, citing languagesandnumbers.com and the pbworks Grammatica de Interlingue. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/interlingue.htm
Simon Ager, "Rotuman (Fäeag Rotuma)," Omniglot — alphabet chart and the Rotuman Lord's Prayer. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/rotuman.php
Simon Ager, "Tagalog language, alphabet and pronunciation," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tagalog.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tagalog.htm
Simon Ager, "Telugu (తెలుగు లిపి)," Omniglot — script origin and the Telugu/Kannada split, the archaic-versus-modern written standard, the 2008 classical-language designation, and the romanised UDHR Article 1 text. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/telugu.htm
Simon Ager, "Tower of Babel in Interlingua" (Genesis 11:1–9), Omniglot, accessed July 4, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/babel/interlingua.htm. Source of the connected-prose reading passage in §13. https://www.omniglot.com/babel/interlingua.htm
Simon Ager, "Turkmen language, alphabets and pronunciation," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/turkmen.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/turkmen.htm
Simon Ager, “Useful Marathi phrases,” Omniglot, accessed 26 July 2026. https://omniglot.com/language/phrases/marathi.php
Simon Ager, "Uzbek language and alphabets," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/uzbek.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/uzbek.htm
Smeets, Ineke. A Grammar of Mapuche. Mouton Grammar Library 41. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2008. The principal modern reference grammar, describing the Temuco/Cautín variety and including texts and a Mapuche–English dictionary. Metadata verified; the full text was not read for this build, so no paradigm has been reproduced from it and it is cited for onward routing. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110211795/html
Sobre a camada tupi no português brasileiro, cf. Antonio Geraldo da Cunha, Dicionario Historico das Palavras Portuguesas de Origem Tupi (Sao Paulo: Melhoramentos/USP, 1978); e Eduardo de Almeida Navarro, Dicionario de Tupi Antigo (Sao Paulo: Global, 2013). https://www.usp.br/
Sobre el caudal de prestamos espanoles (~4.000 palabras; 20-33% del lexico), cf. la documentacion de la Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino y los estudios de Llamzon & Thorpe (1972). https://kwf.gov.ph/
Sohn, The Korean Language (Cambridge). 한자어 등 한국어 어휘 구조를 다룬 표준 문헌. https://www.cambridge.org/9780521369435
Sol T. Plaatje — Setswana journalism, proverb collections, and Shakespeare translations (Diphosho-phosho, 1930); Robert Moffat's complete Setswana Bible (1857), among the first in an African language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Plaatje
Somali — John I. Saeed (John Benjamins). The standard scholarly reference grammar of Somali. https://benjamins.com/catalog/loall
sona pona - Numbers: the additive system built from ala, wan, tu, luka, mute and ale, and nanpa for ordinals. https://sona.pona.la/wiki/Numbers
sona pona - Preverbs: wile, ken, kama, awen, sona and lukin/alasa placed before the main verb to mark mood and aspect. https://sona.pona.la/wiki/Preverbs
sona pona, the official Toki Pona community wiki - prepositions (lon, tawa, tan, kepeken, sama) and their placement; negation with ala; tense and aspect expressed by context and la-phrases; ni-clauses; and toki-ponised proper names. https://sona.pona.la/wiki/Toki_Pona
Songs of the Khakas (ethnographic recordings). Khai, takhpakh and chatkhan recordings — the sound world of the epics. http://face-music.ch/catalog/uechsuemervol_1songs.html
Sonja Lang, Toki Pona: The Language of Good (2014) and Toki Pona Dictionary (2021) — the canonical references, reported via the reviewed sources rather than consulted directly for this page. https://tokipona.org/
SOV-Wortstellung, das Fehlen von Genus, der als Suffix realisierte Artikel (-a/-ak) und die Ergativ–Absolutiv-Ausrichtung (-k) folgen der Norm der Euskaltzaindia (Real Academia de la Lengua Vasca). https://www.euskaltzaindia.eus/
SpanishDict. vortaro, konjugacioj kaj lecionoj kun ekzemploj https://www.spanishdict.com/
Spoken Tamil (Harold Schiffman, University of Pennsylvania). The reference treatment of Standard Spoken Tamil, essential for understanding the colloquial register. https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/tamilweb/tamilhp.html
Stanford Linguistics: Stylistic Practice https://web.stanford.edu/~eckert/Courses/style2013.html
Starling, Ĝan Ŭesli. "La Ŝava Alfabeto." esperanto.us — the 1996 origin of the Esperanto adaptation, the stated aim of preserving Shaw's interna ideo, the 72-page primer and downloadable exercise sheets. https://esperanto.us/sxava_alfabeto/
Stephen D. Krashen, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (Oxford; New York: Pergamon Press, 1982). https://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
Stephen D. Krashen, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1982), http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf. http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
Studio Kalangou — news in Zarma (Fondation Hirondelle). Professional Nigerien newsroom publishing daily radio bulletins in Zarma (and Hausa/French) — the single best C1 listening source. https://www.studiokalangou.org/
Sumerian is a language isolate of ancient southern Mesopotamia, the language of the earliest writing (cuneiform, from c. 3100 BCE); it died out as a spoken language c. 2000 BCE but survived as a scholarly/liturgical language. See “Sumerian language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language
Summary of Gothic's recording by Bishop Wulfila in the fourth century CE, his construction of an alphabet from mainly Greek symbols with Latin and runic elements, and the survival of the translation in the sixth-century Codex Argenteus. See “Gothic Language,” EBSCO Research Starters. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/gothic-language
Super Easy Cantonese. beginner-friendly YouTube content. https://www.youtube.com/@SuperEasyCantonese
Super le orthographia regular, le consonantes duple e le sonos c/g, gli, gn, sc, vide „phonologia italian“ (Treccani). https://www.treccani.it/
Sur le systeme de numeration quinaire-decimal du wolof, cf. l'etude comparee des systemes numeraux du peul et du wolof, African Humanities (CEJSH). https://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-77d1bd17-2a73-4217-94c8-aa9f8a8871c5
Swahili (Kiswahili) ist eine Bantusprache, Verkehrssprache Ostafrikas, von über 100 Millionen Menschen (meist als L2) verstanden, Amtssprache in Tansania und Kenia; lateinische, lautgetreue Schrift. Siehe „Swahili (Sprache)“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_(Sprache)
Taalportaal: Frisian grammar. Academic grammar portal; verify topic scope as you navigate. https://taalportaal.org/taalportaal/topic/pid/topic-13998813396348572
Tagalog.com. Diccionario, conjugador y lecciones con audio, util para autodidactas. https://www.tagalog.com/
Tangiku, Itsuji. Nivufugo Saharin hogen kiso goishu [Basic Vocabulary of the Sakhalin Dialect of Nivkh, Nogliki area]. Tokyo: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2008. A variety-labelled basic vocabulary, Japanese-mediated; the anchor a future variety-tagged wordlist should be built on. Not consulted directly. http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/
Tatoeba contributors. Tatoeba: Collection of Sentences and Translations (CC BY 2.0 FR). Attested human-contributed sentence pairs; each row traceable to its numbered Tatoeba sentence. https://tatoeba.org/
Tatoeba Project, Scottish Gaelic (gla) sentence export, accessed 2026-07-26; individual sentence attribution and CC BY 2.0 reuse terms are exposed by Tatoeba. https://downloads.tatoeba.org/exports/per_language/gla/gla_sentences.tsv.bz2
Tatoeba Project, West Frisian (fry) sentence export, accessed 2026-07-26; individual sentence attribution and CC BY 2.0 reuse terms are exposed by Tatoeba. https://downloads.tatoeba.org/exports/per_language/fry/fry_sentences.tsv.bz2
Tatoeba Scottish Gaelic search. Check attribution per sentence. https://tatoeba.org/en/sentences/search?from=und&to=gla
Tatoeba: West Frisian sentence search. Check each sentence's attribution and licence before reuse. https://tatoeba.org/en/sentences/search?from=und&to=fry
Tatu Ylonen, Kaikki.org Egyptian Arabic Dictionary, machine-readable English Wiktionary extraction, accessed 2026-08-04; underlying content CC BY-SA/GFDL. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Egyptian%20Arabic/index.html
Tatu Ylonen, Kaikki.org Scottish Gaelic Dictionary, structured extraction of English Wiktionary, accessed 2026-07-26; underlying Wiktionary content CC BY-SA 4.0. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/Scottish%20Gaelic/index.html
Tatu Ylonen, Kaikki.org West Frisian Dictionary, structured extraction of English Wiktionary, 2026-07-20; underlying Wiktionary content CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed 2026-07-26. https://kaikki.org/dictionary/West%20Frisian/index.html
Te Whanake (kupu.maori.nz / Te Whanake resources). widely used self-study series by John Moorfield https://www.tewhanake.maori.nz/
Teach Yourself Kazakh / Soyle resources. Sozdik.kz, a widely used Kazakh–Russian–English online dictionary. https://sozdik.kz/
Telugu dialects — Wikipedia. The regional variation this guide does not cover https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_dialects
Tentang kekerabatan Austronesia (Melayu-Polinesia) dan pergeseran bunyi yang teratur, lih. Robert Blust, The Austronesian Languages (Canberra: ANU, 2013) dan Blust & Trussel, Austronesian Comparative Dictionary. https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/
Tersis, Le Zarma, Étude du Parler Djerma de Dosso (SELAF, 1972). The closest thing to a dedicated reference grammar. https://catalogue.bnf.fr/changerPage.do?motRecherche=tersis+zarma
TestDaF (독일어 능력 시험). 독일 대학 입학이나 취업 비자에 필요한 공인 독일어 시험. 목표로 삼으면 학습에 방향이 생깁니다. https://www.testdaf.de/
Texas German Dialect Project (tgdp.org), University of Texas at Austin, directed by Hans C. Boas — ongoing documentation with interview recordings of the last speakers; the primary archive for hearing authentic Texas German and the source for dialect leveling in American German varieties (accessed 2026-07-03). https://tgdp.org/
Textkit — free Greek textbooks & forum. public-domain grammars and a study community https://www.textkit.com/
Thackston — Kurmanji Kurdish reference grammar (PDF). A free, scholarly reference grammar of Kurmanji with readings, hosted by Harvard. https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Kurmanji/
Thaïs Cristófaro Silva. “A Complexity Approach to Sound Change: Palatalization in Brazilian Portuguese.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used to cross-check palatalization of /t,d/ before high front vowel (tia [tʃia] 'aunt', dia [dʒia] 'day'), palatalizing vs non-palatalizing varieties, and its prestige/spread. Author is a leading BP phonologist. http://www.dinafon.iel.unicamp.br/vw/1Z-roMDM_MDA_f3b88_/cristofaro-silva.pdf
Thalassian Language blog — fan root-extraction analysis of the official corpus; source of the 'hypothesis layer' framing in §5. http://thalassianlanguage.blogspot.com/
The Aztec/Mexica language is Nahuatl, a Uto-Aztecan language; Classical Nahuatl is the 16th-century form richly documented in colonial sources (Molina, the Florentine Codex). Nahuatl remains spoken by roughly 1.5 million people today. See “Nahuatl.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl
The case system, the declined definite article, and the active/middle/passive voice system follow the standard reference: Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920), hosted on the Perseus Digital Library. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0007
The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD), free PDFs. the monumental Akkadian dictionary https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/assyrian-dictionary-oriental-institute-university-chicago-cad
The Complete Lojban Language (CLL). John Cowan's 1997 reference grammar published by the Logical Language Group — the authoritative description of the language. Best as a reference once you know some Lojban. https://lojban.github.io/cll/
The Complete Lojban Language, ch. 3 (‘The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban’): orthography and basic phonetics. https://lojban.github.io/cll/3/2/
The Dwarrow Scholar — Neo-Khuzdul dictionaries, grammar and phrase conventions (Shamukh, Âkminrûk zu, layer-labelling ethic), and documentation of David Salo's film Dwarvish sources. Fan-made source, used with that caveat throughout. https://dwarrowscholar.wordpress.com/
The Grammar of Romanian — Gabriela Pană Dindelegan (ed.), OUP. The standard comprehensive reference grammar of modern Romanian in English. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-grammar-of-romanian-9780199644926
The Grammar of Sambahsa-Mundialect in English, by Olivier Simon — the author's reference grammar, source for the reflexive se/sib/sien and the declension detail underlying the pronoun tables. https://www.geocities.ws/sambahsa/niklad/THE%20GRAMMAR%20OF%20SAMBAHSA-MUNDIALECT%20IN%20ENGLISH%20by%20Olivier%20SIMON.pdf
The High German (Second) Consonant Shift — West Germanic p, t, k → OHG pf/ff, z/zz, ch/hh, and þ → d — with examples (wazzar, daz, apful, pfad, ih). See 'High German consonant shift', Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift
The Inca Empire's administrative language was Quechua (Runasimi); the Incas kept records on khipu (knotted cords), not an alphabetic script. Quechua remains spoken by an estimated 8–10 million people across the Andes. See “Quechua.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua
The Language Construction Kit (Mark Rosenfelder). The classic free primer on how to actually build a language — the on-ramp for three decades of conlangers. https://www.zompist.com/kit.html
The Logical Language Group, official Lojban site and wiki (‘What is Lojban?’, example sentences, attitudinals, dictionaries). https://mw.lojban.org/papri/Lojban
The modern Mi’kmaq writing system (the Francis–Smith / Smith–Francis orthography) was created in 1974 by Mi’kmaw linguist Bernie Francis with linguist Douglas Smith (University of Toronto) and adopted as the official orthography of the Mi’kmaq Nation by the Grand Council (Santé Mawiómi) in 1980. Tepi’ketuek Mi’kmaw Archives, ‘Bernie Francis.’ https://mikmawarchives.ca/authors/bernie-francis
The Ojibwe People's Dictionary. University of Minnesota, John D. Nichols, chief linguist. https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/ — source for every headword, gloss and grammatical class tag on this guide's deck, direct-read 2026-08-15.
The Ojibwe People's Dictionary. University of Minnesota. Browsable, audio-linked Ojibwe-English dictionary; source for all headwords and grammatical class codes in this deck. https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/
The pluricentric position — that Standard Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are variants of one polycentric standard language — is associated principally with Snježana Kordić, Jezik i nacionalizam (Zagreb: Durieux, 2010), and is represented in the sociolinguistic literature summarised by the in-repo research dossier. Presented here as one of two serious positions, alongside the separate-standard position reflected in Croatian institutional practice at notes 1 and 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian
The Shaw Alphabet Edition of Androcles and the Lion (1962), Internet Archive. The primary corpus — scanned. Read the reading key at pp. 9–11. https://archive.org/details/AndroclesAndTheLion_ShawAlphabetEdition
The Unicode Consortium. The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0, chapter 17: “Southeast Asia-II,” section 17.4, “Javanese.” The Javanese block is U+A980–U+A9DF. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-17/
Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (TLA). scholarly corpus and dictionary https://thesaurus-linguae-aegyptiae.de/
Thèse de doctorat consacrée au contact de langues français-lingala à Kinshasa (2011), située spécifiquement dans le contexte kinois. https://theses.fr/2011AIX10066
Tigrinya for Beginners. A widely used introductory workbook for self-study. https://www.thriftbooks.com/browse/?b.search=tigrinya%20for%20beginners
Til-Qural / Kazakça ögronme kaynaklari. Baslangiç dersleri ve dil bilgisi materyalleri. https://kazakhtili.kz/
Tlingit Phrases, Colors and Greetings (Chilkat Indian Village). community phrase list https://chilkat-nsn.gov/tlingit-phrases-colors-and-greetings/
Toki Pona as a minimalist philosophical constructed language aiming to simplify thought; the autonym 'good/simple language'; nine consonants and five vowels with IPA values and (C)V(N) syllable structure; isolating, uninflected, SVO, head-initial typology; the particles li, e, pi, la and o; the jan pona mute vs jan pi pona mute contrast; modifier chains (jan utala, soweli utala vs utala soweli); absence of number marking with wan/tu/mute; and the attested core vocabulary glosses. See “Toki Pona.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toki_Pona
tokio.cervantes.es. Para hispanohablantes residentes en Japón, el Instituto Cervantes de Tokio ofrece actividades culturales y puede orientar sobre recursos de aprendizaje de japonés. tokio.cervantes.es https://tokio.cervantes.es/
Tomoko Nakanishi, "A Meta-Analysis of Extensive Reading Research," TESOL Quarterly 49, no. 1 (2015): 6–37, https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157
Ton Dijkstra and Walter J. B. van Heuven, "The Architecture of the Bilingual Word Recognition System: From Identification to Decision," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 5, no. 3 (2002): 175–197, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728902003012. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728902003012
Tongan Dictionary — C. Maxwell Churchward. The standard Tongan–English and English–Tongan dictionary. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL12428573W/Tongan_dictionary
Tongan Grammar — C. Maxwell Churchward. The classic reference grammar of Tongan, still the standard scholarly description. https://natlib.govt.nz/records/22092504
Treccani (dictionar si enciclopedie). Dictionarul de referinta al limbii italiene. https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/
TRT (radio es televizio). Torok kozszolgalati media: valodi nyelv hallgatashoz. https://www.trt.net.tr/
TUKI — Kamusi ya Kiswahili (Instituto de Estudios de Kiswahili). diccionario suajili-inglés de referencia https://swahili-dictionary.com/
TUKI Kamusi (جامعة دار السلام). معجم معهد البحوث السواحيلية (TATAKI) بجامعة دار السلام. https://www.elimuyetu.co.tz/subjects/arts/swa-eng/
Tuone Udaina (1823–1898), Italian Antonio Udina, nicknamed Burbur, last documented speaker of Vegliote; served in 1897 as Matteo Giulio Bartoli's key informant, supplying roughly 2,800 words, folk tales and autobiographical detail; died 10 June 1898 aged 74 in a landmine explosion during road construction on Krk. See “Tuone Udaina.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuone_Udaina
Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK / Turkish Language Association) — từ điển và chuẩn chính tả chính thức của tiếng Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ. https://www.tdk.gov.tr/
Turk Dil Kurumu (TDK) szotar. A torok nyelv hivatalos szotara es nyelvi forrasa. https://sozluk.gov.tr/
Türkmen dili (sözlük ve dil kaynaklari). Türkmen dili devlet sözlük ve yazim kaynaklari. https://sozluk.gov.tm/
Türkmenistan döwlet habarlar (TDH). Türkmen devlet haber ajansi: okuma ve güncel dil için. https://tdh.gov.tm/
TV3 / 3Cat. Catalonia's public broadcaster: news, drama and the famous Polònia for authentic listening. https://www.ccma.cat/tv3/
tv5monde.com. Canal televisivo público francófono disponível em Portugal e no Brasil via satélite e streaming. Oferece legendas em francês em quase todos os programas — ideal para associar som e escrita. tv5monde.com https://www.tv5monde.com/
TVR (Televiziunea Romana). Radiotelevisione pubblica rumena in streaming: notiziari, documentari, serie. https://www.tvr.ro/
TVRI / Indonesische media. Indonesische publieke omroep: echt taalgebruik om te beluisteren. https://www.tvri.go.id/
Tzu-Yin Lee, Yun-Chi Ho, and Che-Han Chen, "Integrating Intercultural Communicative Competence into an Online EFL Classroom: An Empirical Study of a Secondary School in Thailand," Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education 8, no. 4 (2023), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40862-022-00174-1. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40862-022-00174-1
UCLA eScholarship, Mexican Spanish dialectology source, accessed 2026-08-04. Used for regional-scope caution. https://escholarship.org/content/qt7wg493xr/qt7wg493xr.pdf
Ukrainian Lessons. Podcast và bài học có hệ thống, giải thích bằng tiếng Anh. https://www.ukrainianlessons.com/
Ulrike Jessner, "A DST Model of Multilingualism and the Role of Metalinguistic Awareness," The Modern Language Journal 92, no. 2 (2008): 270–283, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00718.x. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00718.x
Ulrike Jessner, Linguistic Awareness in Multilinguals: English as a Third Language (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Linguistic%20Awareness%20in%20Multilinguals%20English%20as%20a%20Third%20Language%20Jessner
Unama’ki College, Cape Breton University. Mi’kmaq-language courses & language lab https://www.cbu.ca/indigenous-affairs/unamaki-college/
Understanding Sambahsa Pronouns 1 & 2 (Verda Stelo blog, Feb 2011) — the nominative/accusative/dative/possessive pronoun tables and the bah- 'speak' conjugation, plus the 'to be' and possessive example sentences (Io som John; Tod est mien computer; Is daht mi un buk). The tables were corrected in the comment thread by Olivier Simon. http://verda-stelo.blogspot.com/2011/02/understanding-sambahsa-pronouns-2.html
Understanding Sambahsa Pronouns 1 & 2 (Verda Stelo). A gentle, example-led walk through the pronoun system; the tables here were corrected by Olivier Simon in the comments. http://verda-stelo.blogspot.com/2011/02/understanding-sambahsa-pronouns-1.html
UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010 reclassification of Cornish from ‘extinct’ to ‘critically endangered’), reported via “Cornish language,” Wikipedia; speaker estimates (~500 fluent; ~2,000 conversational) vary by definition because Cornish is a revived language. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages recognition. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_language
UNESCO. "Fest-noz, festive gathering based on the collective practice of the traditional dances of Brittany." Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, inscribed 2012. Accessed August 4, 2026. Records that about a thousand fest-noz take place each year with participants from a hundred to several thousand, thousands of musicians and singers and tens of thousands of regular dancers, drawing on inherited dance repertoires with several hundred variations and thousands of tunes, and that transmission traditionally occurs through immersion, observation and imitation. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/fest-noz-festive-gathering-based-on-the-collective-practice-of-traditional-dances-of-brittany-00707
Unicode code chart — Shorthand Format Controls, U+1BCA0–U+1BCAF. The four overlap and step controls https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1BCA0.pdf
Unicode Consortium, Phonetic Extensions (U+1D00–1D7F) and Phonetic Extensions Supplement (U+1D80–1DBF) blocks — which exist substantially because of the UPA. Code charts. https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1D00.pdf
Unifon.org (Evertype) — front-page testimonials including John Culkin's 1977-07-20 New York Times item on the Stanford reading-test results (Malone the alphabet, Ratz the pedagogy, Elizabeth Jones the teaching), Steve Bett's 2002 statement of the phonemic-notation case, and the site's font and teaching-resource sections. http://www.unifon.org/index.html
Unifon.org. The community site: history pages on Malone and Culkin, character charts, fonts, dictionaries, teaching materials and a converter. http://www.unifon.org/
Union Mundial pro Interlingua, accessed July 4, 2026, https://www.interlingua.com/. The international Interlingua organisation; publisher of dictionaries, grammars and the magazine Panorama in interlingua, and gateway to the Interlingua Wikipedia corpus. https://www.interlingua.com/
United Nations Brazil (Nações Unidas no Brasil / UNIC Rio). “Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos — Brazilian Portuguese text (Article 1).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Source of an attested Brazilian Portuguese sentence pair: UDHR Article 1 in the Brazilian version ('Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e direitos...'). Contrast with the European Portuguese wording documented via S17. https://brasil.un.org/sites/default/files/2025-03/ONU_DireitosHumanos_DUDH_UNICRio_20250310.pdf
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Pernyataan Umum Ngeunaan Hak-hak Asasi Manusa” (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Sundanese translation). The Article 1 text quoted in section 9 is reproduced from this official translation. https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/sundanese
United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Esperanto translation. https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/esperanto
Universal Dependencies. "UD Breton-KEB." Accessed July 17, 2026. Manually annotated dependency treebank: 884 sentences, 9,725 tokens, 10,006 syntactic words; source mix includes grammatical examples, Breton Wikipedia, Office public material, prose and traditional songs; CC BY-SA 4.0. Source of the four attested sentences in section 6, quoted with their corpus identifiers (grammar.vislcg.txt:1:0, 5:103, 8:182, 9:199) and the short translations stored with the records. https://universaldependencies.org/treebanks/br_keb/index.html
Universala Esperanto-Asocio https://uea.org/
University College London. “SAMPROSA — SAM Prosodic Transcription.” The prosodic transcription proposals underlying X-SAMPA's separate tone tier. https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/samprosa.htm
University College London. “X-SAMPA.” The IPA-free HTML summary and symbol listing, last revised 3 May 2000, when Unicode code points were added. https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/x-sampa.htm
University of Bamberg: register https://www.uni-bamberg.de/fileadmin/eng-ling/fs/Chapter_21/Register.html
University of Hamburg — Electronic Dictionary of the Ket Language. Published 2025. A specialist dictionary project — the right next stop for a learner who has worked through this guide's vocabulary. https://www.slm.uni-hamburg.de/
University of Hamburg. Electronic Dictionary of the Ket Language, published 2025. RESEARCH/Ket/vocabulary-and-lexicon.md and learning-resources.md, direct-read 2026-07-17.
University of Maine (2026), ‘New edition of Passamaquoddy-Maliseet dictionary published by UMaine Press’ — two-volume, ~1,600-page second edition (Francis, Leavitt & Apt) with more than 19,000 entries, a grammatical sketch, pronunciation key and verb-conjugation guides. https://umaine.edu/news/2026/01/new-edition-of-passamaquoddy-maliseet-dictionary-published-by-umaine-press/
Unquachog (Unkechaug) is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian variety of Long Island, closely related to Quiripi, dormant and thinly documented (cf. Jefferson’s 1791 wordlist). See “Quiripi language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiripi_language
UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino. Diccionario filipino de referencia academica. https://www.kwf.gov.ph/diksiyonaryo-ng-wikang-filipino/
Upopoy — National Ainu Museum and Park. museum, language & culture programmes https://ainu-upopoy.jp/en/
upopoy.jp. 2020年に開設された国立アイヌ民族博物館。言語教育プログラムを実施しており、現在のアイヌ語復興活動の中心地。upopoy.jp https://upopoy.jp/
Useful phrases in Telugu (Omniglot). ~50 phrases with script and romanisation, translated by Ramesh Kompella, with audio https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/telugu.php
Usito, dictionnaire général du français sous la direction d'Hélène Cajolet-Laganière, Pierre Martel et Chantal-Édith Masson, Université de Sherbrooke — dictionnaire de référence du français québécois standard ; vérification des entrées char, magasiner, dépanneur, blonde, chum, tuque, frette, pantoute (recoupement effectué lors des passes 2026-06-27 et 2026-07-02). Confiance : élevée. https://usito.usherbrooke.ca/
UzbekClass / Uzbekistan dil kaynaklari. Baslangiç için dersler ve temel söz dagarcigi. https://uzbekclass.com/
Vajda, Edward. 2010 article on Ket verb morphology (metadata + direct passages reviewed): prefixing template with agreement, incorporated-noun, thematic, tense/mood and root positions; caution against a single simplified beginner template. RESEARCH/Ket/grammar-and-syntax.md [K06, pp. 457–470], direct-read 2026-07-17.
Vajda, Edward. Ket Prosodic Phonology (bibliographic + directly reviewed passages): four phonemic prosodemes in monosyllables, non-melodic initial accent in polysyllables. RESEARCH/Ket/phonology-and-pronunciation.md [K06, p. 458; K04], direct-read 2026-07-17.
Vajehyab. قواميس فارسية متعدّدة في موضع واحد—مفيد لتتبّع الأصل العربي. https://www.vajehyab.com/
Valdivia, Luis de. Arte y gramática general de la lengua que corre en todo el Reyno de Chile (1606); Febrés, Andrés. Arte de la lengua general del Reyno de Chile, with its Diccionario araucano-español y español-araucano (1765); Augusta, Félix José de, Diccionario araucano-español y español-araucano. The colonial and early grammars and dictionaries. Historical documents recording earlier stages and earlier outsiders' analyses; not evidence of current usage. https://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-8253.html
Valdman, A., Rottet, K. J. et al. (2010). Dictionary of Louisiana French: As Spoken in Cajun, Creole, and American Indian Communities. University Press of Mississippi (ISBN 978-1-60473-403-4) — référence lexicographique : char, asteur, icitte, cocodril, gombo, cher/chère, mais d'insistance, fais do-do. Confiance : élevée. https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/D/Dictionary-of-Louisiana-French
Van Anderson, "N3895: Proposal to include Duployan script and Shorthand Format Controls in UCS" (2010) — the encoding model, the single-script decision covering all six adaptations, and the exclusion of the Galloway and Brandt shorthands. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10272r2-duployan.pdf
Večernji list. Daily newspaper published in Zagreb and Mostar; one of the three leading Croatian dailies. https://www.vecernji.hr/
Verb-first (VSO) order, the present tense of bod, the indefinite-article gap, and the initial consonant mutations follow the standard reference: Gareth King, Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar, 3rd ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_grammar
Vicipedia (LFN Wikipedia). Wikipedia written in Lingua Franca Nova — reading practice on real topics. https://lfn.wikipedia.org/
Vikipetã (Wikipedia en guaraní). Lectura auténtica para ampliar vocabulario. https://gn.wikipedia.org/
Visão geral do isiXhosa. Contexto sobre cliques, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_xhosa
Visão geral do isiZulu. Orientação sobre cliques, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_zulu
Visão geral do shona. Orientação sobre dialetos, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_xona
Vitrine linguistique, Office québécois de la langue française — usages recommandés (fin de semaine, courriel, magasiner) et fiches sur les québécismes. Confiance : élevée. https://vitrinelinguistique.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/
Vivian Cook, "Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching," TESOL Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1999): 185–209, https://doi.org/10.2307/3587717. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587717
Vocabulary, greetings (Azul, Tanemmirt, Amek, Ayyuh/Wah, Uhu) and the native numerals are drawn from Amazigh teaching and reference resources: the Amawal dictionary and linguistic atlas, IRCAM's Dictionnaire Général de la Langue Amazighe (DGLAi), the High Commission for Amazighity (HCA, Algeria), and 'How to count in Tamazight' (Languages and Numbers); transliterations vary, and Arabic numerals are common in everyday speech. https://www.amazigh.online/
VSO order with pre-verbal tense/aspect particles (ka, kua, e…ana, i), the articles te/ngā/he, and the a/o possession categories follow the standard learner references of Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori and the Te Aka Māori Dictionary. https://maoridictionary.co.nz/
VTV（越南国家电视台）. 地道的越南语新闻与节目，用于听力。 https://vtv.vn/
Vulcan Language Dictionary (community) — Starbase-10. Long-running Golic Vulcan dictionary continuing the Vulcan Language Institute's work. The main community vocabulary reference. https://www.starbase-10.de/vld/
Wagner, Yuchi Tales (1931, Internet Archive). transcribed oral texts https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_yuc_vertxt-2
Wali, Kashi. Marathi. Munich: Lincom Europa, 2005. Cited for the identity of the ergative and instrumental markers, and for neutral (neuter) agreement when no unmarked noun is present. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_grammar#Ergativity
Walisische Sprache (Überblick). Einordnung, Geschichte, Status https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walisische_Sprache
WALS Online — Tigrinya. Typological features of Tigrinya in the World Atlas of Language Structures. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_tig
WALS Online (World Atlas of Language Structures). “WALS Online — Portuguese (wals code: por).” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for classification: Family = Indo-European, Genus = Romance; glottocode port1283; ISO 639-3 por; coordinates 39N 8W (Portugal). https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_por
WALS Online chapter 118: Predicative Adjectives https://wals.info/chapter/118
WALS Online chapter 119: Nominal and Locational Predication https://wals.info/chapter/119
WALS Online chapter 12: Syllable Structure https://wals.info/chapter/12
WALS Online chapter 120: Zero Copula for Predicate Nominals https://wals.info/chapter/120
WALS Online chapter 13: Tone https://wals.info/chapter/13
WALS Online chapter 14: Fixed Stress Locations https://wals.info/chapter/14
WALS Online chapter 20: Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives https://wals.info/chapter/20
WALS Online chapter 22: Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb https://wals.info/chapter/22
WALS Online chapter 27: Reduplication https://wals.info/chapter/27
WALS Online chapter 30: Number of Genders https://wals.info/chapter/30
WALS Online chapter 37: Definite Articles https://wals.info/chapter/37
WALS Online chapter 45: Politeness Distinctions in Pronouns https://wals.info/chapter/45
WALS Online chapter 55: Numeral Classifiers https://wals.info/chapter/55
WALS Online chapter 88: Order of Demonstrative and Noun https://wals.info/chapter/88
WALS Online chapter 89: Order of Numeral and Noun https://wals.info/chapter/89
wanikani.com. Sistema de repetición espaciada para aprender kanji y vocabulario japonés mediante historias mnemónicas visuales. Lleva desde cero hasta los ~2.000 kanji jōyō de forma estructurada y progresiva. Los primeros tres niveles son gratuitos; el resto requiere suscripción. wanikani.com https://www.wanikani.com/
Wehewehe Wikiwiki. The combined online Hawaiian dictionaries (Pukui-Elbert and more); the essential reference. https://wehewehe.org/
Wells, John C. “Computer-coding the IPA: a proposed extension of SAMPA.” Revised draft, 28 April 1995. University College London. Read in full for the LinguaCommons Priority-1 research folder; claims here are anchored to its numbered sections — §1 scope and proposal status, §2 and §4 the relation to SAMPA, §3 and §27 the base layer, §5 the apostrophe, §6 the backtick, §12 the backslash, §13 the underscore and the precedence rule, §14 and §18 ejectives and implosives, §20–24 prosody, §26 unique parsability. https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/ipasam-x.pdf
Wells, John C., maintainer. “SAMPA computer readable phonetic alphabet.” University College London, site last revised 25 October 2005. The primary source for the ASCII 37–127 design rule, case sensitivity and unique parsability, the basic six-language symbol table, the ESPRIT 1541 / 1987–89 origin statement, the collaborative-development statement, the language timeline, the legacy-resource list, and both official obsolescence notes. https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm
West Frisian dossier: language-profile.md and common-learner-difficulties.md, LinguaCommons research library, 2026-07-18; source trail recorded there. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Frisian_language
Western Abenaki is an Abenakian Eastern Algonquian language of Vermont/New Hampshire/Québec, dormant with immersion revival. See “Abenaki language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_language
Wheelock's Latin. the classic grammar-and-translation course; thorough, if drier https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelock%27s_Latin
Wikipedia — SAMPA. Secondary overview; useful for the per-language table links. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAMPA
Wikipedia — X-SAMPA. Secondary overview with a full symbol table. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-SAMPA
Wikipedia (deutsch) — Bairische Dialekte. Klassifikation, Lautlehre, Grammatiktabellen, Status https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bairische_Dialekte
Wikipedia (English). “Brazilian Portuguese.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used for detailed synthesis: history and loanword strata (Tupi, African, immigrant), regional-dialect taxonomy (caipira, fluminense/carioca, gaúcho, mineiro, nordestino, nortista/amazofonia, paulistano, sertanejo, sulista, florianopolitano, baiano, cearense, etc.), phonology tables, grammar contrasts (tu/você, estar+gerund, ter for haver, proclisis), and orthography. Caution tier: cross-checked its phonology against S07/S08/S13, its history against S05, and its orthography against S09/S10/S11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese
Wikipedia (English). “Portuguese phonology.” Accessed 2026-07-17. Used to cross-check the consonant and vowel/diphthong inventory tables against S06, S07, S08. Caution tier; consonant/vowel tables consistent with the peer-reviewed picture. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_phonology
Wikipedia & UNESCO endangered-language pages. Overview of the phonology, grammar, and preservation status. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_language
Wikipedia contributors. “Javanese language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved for the LinguaCommons Javanese language guide, 4 August 2026. Source for the six-vowel analysis and its allophony, the word-final /a/ → [ɔ] rule and its spread to the penult, the dental/retroflex contrast and its rarity in western Indonesia, the stiff-voice/slack-voice description of the stop series, the syllable canon and cluster patterns, the tampa/tanpa pair, the non-contrastive stress, and the 1926/1972–73 orthography history. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_language
Wikipedia contributors. “Marathi grammar.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 August 2026. Source for SOV order, the three genders and the akārānta/ākārānta/īkārānta noun classes, feminine derivation and the diminutive, the oblique (sāmānya rūp), the eight vibhaktī, the declinable/indeclinable adjective split, the demonstrative and possessive paradigms, the personal-pronoun table, the -णे infinitive, the असणे paradigms, the imperative and causative patterns, the three prayoga, the tatsama rule, the Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and Walimbe's grammar, and Carey's 1805 grammar as the first of its kind. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_grammar
Wikipedia contributors. “Marathi language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved for the LinguaCommons Marathi language guide, 4 August 2026. Source for the Balbodh letter inventory, including the retroflex lateral ळ which Hindi lacks. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language
Wikipedia contributors. “Samoan language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Speaker figures: 2018 New Zealand census, 2010 US census, 2021 Australian census. Accessed 2026-08-15.
Wikipedia contributors. “Samoan language” — Grammar section: VSO/VOS word order, the le/se/ni article system, the a/o possessive split, and the singular/dual/plural, inclusive/exclusive pronoun system. Accessed 2026-08-15.
Wikipedia contributors. “Samoan language” — Phonology and Orthography sections: five vowels with phonemic length (macron), the glottal stop ('okina), the 2012 Ministry of Education readoption of the diacritics. Accessed 2026-08-15.
Wikipedia contributors. “Samoan language” — Sociolinguistics section: the tautala lelei/tautala leaga t→k and n→ng register alternation, and gagana fa'aaloalo honorific/ceremonial register. Accessed 2026-08-15.
Wikipedia contributors. “Sundanese language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 August 2026. Source for the speaker figure, geography and history, the dialect list, the Latin alphabet and its spelling history, the seven-vowel and eighteen-consonant inventories, epenthetic glides, the register system and the 1988 Bogor congress, the pronoun table, the -ar-/-al- plural infix with its examples, the active verb prefixes, the di- … ku passive, the negation system, the question openers and words, the prepositions and locative nouns, the scripts, and the UDHR Article 1 text. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese_language
Wikipedia contributors. “Sundanese script.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 August 2026. Source for Aksara Sunda Baku, the rarangkén diacritics and the script's Unicode encoding. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese_script
Wikipedia contributors. “Yucatec Maya language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 5 August 2026. Source for the autonym and naming discussion, the false ma yaʼab etymology, the Belize census figure, the Yucatecan branch classification, the ejective and implosive consonants, the five vowel qualities and four vowel shapes, tone, stress, the debuccalisation rule, verb-initial VOS/VSO order and topic–comment structure, the absence of grammatical tense and of before/after connectives, the transitive, intransitive and passive aspect paradigms, the Maya script and colonial orthography, the ALMG/INALI spelling differences, the 2019 Yucatán schooling law, and the radio, film, telenovela, music and Bible material in section 11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language
Wikipedia, "ARPABET" (conduit, re-anchored to Klautau 2001 and Jurafsky & Martin, Speech and Language Processing): two systems (1-char alternating-case; 1–2-char case-insensitive, the latter far more widely adopted); stress digit immediately after a vowel (0/1/2); vowel/consonant → IPA mappings; auxiliary/boundary symbols; TIMIT variant with closures etc.; historical synthesizer use. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPABET
Wikipedia, "Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet" — cross-system divergence conduit. Confirms the Q/G/W/R/H and apostrophe conflicts between Kirshenbaum and X-SAMPA/SAMPA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet
Wikipedia, "Uralic Phonetic Alphabet" / "Finno-Ugric transcription" (conduit): Finnish-alphabet base extended from Cyrillic and Greek; italic/bold carry meaning instead of bracket delimiters; small capitals mark voicelessness; heavy diacritics; encoded in Unicode Phonetic Extensions (+Supplement). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_Phonetic_Alphabet
Wikitufe. Diccionarios mapudungun–español accesibles para consulta. https://www.facebook.com/Wikitufe/
Wikivoyage contributors. “Sundanese phrasebook.” Wikivoyage. Accessed July 26, 2026. Source of the greetings, numerals (including the traditional likur/salawe/sawidak counts), days, months, colours and direction words. https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Sundanese_phrasebook
Wiktionary — Old Church Slavonic. Searchable lemmas with declensions and etymologies. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_Church_Slavonic_lemmas
Wiktionary — Proto-Germanic reconstructions. reconstructed lexicon (marked with *) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Germanic_language
Wiktionary contributors, ‘Appendix:Spanish Swadesh list,’ accessed 2026-08-04; CC BY-SA and additional terms apply. Used as a cross-check for shared Spanish core forms, not as proof of Spain-specific use. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Spanish_Swadesh_list
Wiktionary contributors, “Appendix:Marathi Swadesh list,” Wiktionary, accessed 26 July 2026. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Marathi_Swadesh_list
Wiktionary contributors. “Appendix:Sundanese Swadesh list.” Wiktionary. Accessed July 26, 2026. Register labels and the 207-meaning list follow R. R. Hardjadibrata, Sundanese English Dictionary (Jakarta, 2003). https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Sundanese_Swadesh_list
Wiktionary contributors. “Wiktionary:Frequency lists/BrazilianPortuguese wordlist.” Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. Accessed 2026-07-18. Ranked Brazilian Portuguese word-frequency list built from OpenSubtitles.org data; primary source for the companion SRS deck’s core vocabulary. Reliability: moderate (crowd-compiled from a film/TV subtitle corpus; individual glosses are ordinary dictionary translations). https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Frequency_lists/BrazilianPortuguese_wordlist
Wiktionary 汉越词条目. 系统查阅汉越词及其汉字本字。 https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Sino-Vietnamese_words
Wiktionary. "Appendix:Javanese Swadesh list." 207 entries in Latin spelling, aksara Jawa and IPA, register-tagged (ngoko / krama / krama-ngoko / krama inggil) after W. J. S. Poerwadarminta, Baoesastra Djawa (Batavia: J. B. Wolters, 1939), with spelling following Pedoman Umum: Ejaan Bahasa Jawa Huruf Latin yang Disempurnakan (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2006). https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Javanese_Swadesh_list
William R. Schmalstieg, An Introduction to Old Church Slavic. A widely used teaching introduction with readings. https://www.worldcat.org/title/introduction-to-old-church-slavic/oclc/9945249
Wôpanâak (Wampanoag) is the reawakened Massachusett language, revived by the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project (Jessie Little Doe Baird). See “Massachusett language” and the WLRP. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusett_language
Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project. community reclamation program https://www.wlrp.org/
WordReference / Reverso. Diccionarios con ejemplos reales y foros. https://www.wordreference.com/iten/
WordReference ES-RO / SpanishDict. Dictionar bidirectional cu exemple si conjugator. https://www.wordreference.com/
WordReference FR-EN. 불영 사전 + 활용표 + 용례 포럼. 의미·용법 확인에 매우 유용합니다. 전 레벨 https://www.wordreference.com/fren/
WordReference. 스페인어-영어 사전 + 동사 활용표 + 포럼. 문법·어휘 확인에 유용. https://www.wordreference.com/es/en/translation.asp
wordreference.com/fres. El mejor diccionario bilingüe en línea, con foros de consulta y ejemplos de uso real. Imprescindible. wordreference.com/fres https://www.wordreference.com/fres/
wordreference.com/frit. Il miglior dizionario bilingue online, con forum di consultazione ed esempi di uso reale. Indispensabile. wordreference.com/frit https://www.wordreference.com/frit/
wordreference.com/frpt. O melhor dicionário bilingue online, com fórum de consulta e exemplos de uso real. Indispensável. wordreference.com/frpt https://www.wordreference.com/frpt/
World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) Online. "Nivkh." Typological profile: SOV, head-marking, eight or nine cases, obligatory numeral classifiers, decimal base, no gender, inclusive/exclusive pronouns, two tenses (non-future/future), no verbal person marking. Consulted via the in-repo dossier, which fetched it 2026-07-16. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_niv
World Atlas of Language Structures Online. "Language Breton." Accessed July 17, 2026. Independently records the same ISO 639-3 and Glottocode identifiers and places Breton in the Indo-European family, Celtic genus, in France. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_bre
Wulfila Project — the Gothic corpus online. Wulfila's translation is the corpus; any serious study works directly from the edited text https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulfila
Yeda Pessoa de Castro, Falares Africanos na Bahia: um vocabulario afro-brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro: Academia Brasileira de Letras / Topbooks, 2001); cf. Nei Lopes, Novo Dicionario Banto do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Pallas, 2003). https://www.academia.org.br/
YesAsia.com. importer of Hong Kong media; recommended for acquiring DVDs with original Cantonese audio tracks. https://www.yesasia.com/
Ylonen, Tatu. "Wiktextract: Wiktionary as Machine-Readable Structured Data." Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC), Marseille, 20–25 June 2022, 1317–25. The extraction tool behind kaikki.org, cited as its maintainers request. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2022/pdf/2022.lrec-1.140.pdf
Yocum, Thomas, Loba Lingala! An English Guide to the Language of Kinshasa (2014) — présent simple (nalei, nasala), progressif (nazali + infinitif), négation avec « te » et expressions courantes du lingala parlé. Fiabilité : moyenne. https://lobalingala.wordpress.com/
Yoruba Lessons & YouTube channels. Tone drills and beginner courses. https://www.yorubalessons.com/
Yorùbá overview. Background on tone, vowels and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_language
Yucatec Maya DoReCo corpus. Narrative audio with phone-level time-aligned transcription — the best way to hear the four vowel shapes. https://doreco.huma-num.fr/languages/yuca1254
Yuchi (Euchee) — Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. people, history & language status https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=YU001
Yuchi Language Project — community revitalisation through master–apprentice teams, children's immersion and the Yuchi Immersion School (opened 2018); see also First Nations Development Institute, “The Yuchi Language Comes Home.” https://www.yuchilanguage.org/
Yurok Language Department (Yurok Tribe), “'O sley-goych (Village 1: Introductions),” on the naming verb and person prefixes — 'new / k'ew / 'wew ('my/your/his-her name is'), the full forms 'ney-wo-lek' / k'ey-wo-lek' / 'wey-wo-lek', the 'come-from' verb with its short forms ('ne-mew' / k'e-mew' / 'ue-mew'), and the nickname verb wey-go-noy-ek', taught with elder audio. https://www.yuroklanguage.com/village-learning-pathway/o-sley-goych-village-1-introductions
Yurok Language Department (Yurok Tribe), “Greetings,” on Aiy-ye-kwee' as a heartfelt greeting that may be addressed to people and to important places, with its drawn-out final vowel intensifying feeling, and on the gendered casual greetings. https://www.yuroklanguage.com/language-domains/greetings
Zarma Bible portions & audio. Parallel text + audio — slow, clear register for shadowing. https://www.bible.com/languages/dje
zbfgrk.org. Hong Kong–based bookstore with international shipping; good source for graphic novels & Cantonese-language books. https://www.zbfgrk.org/
Zoltán Dörnyei, "The L2 Motivational Self System," in Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, ed. Zoltán Dörnyei and Ema Ushioda (Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2009), 9–42. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Dornyei%20The%20L2%20Motivational%20Self%20System%20Motivation%20Language%20Identity
Zúñiga, Fernando. Work on Mapudungun direct–inverse marking and the person/empathy hierarchy (1, 2 > 3 proximate > 3 obviative). The specialist source for the alignment description in section 5, and the reason this guide uses direct/inverse/proximate/obviative wording rather than an ergative label, since analyses of Mapudungun alignment differ and the direct–inverse framing is the consensus specialist description. https://www.isw.unibe.ch/about_us/staff/prof_dr_zuniga_fernando/index_eng.html
Zúñiga: Polysynthesis — A review https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12326
Zwicky and Pullum: Cliticization vs. Inflection https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language/article/abs/cliticization-vs-inflection-english-nt/C83F05465BEC225592794A59F5B6AA1C
Ґете-Інститут Україна. Курси та іспити (Goethe-Zertifikat) в Україні та за кордоном; сайт доступний українською. https://www.goethe.de/ins/ua/uk/index.html
Хакас чирі (Khakas Chiri) — the Khakas-language newspaper. Contemporary written standard: news, culture, school pages. https://khakaschiry.ru/
إذاعة BBC Swahili. أخبار ومقالات وصوت بالسواحيلية المعيارية للاستماع والقراءة. https://www.bbc.com/swahili
عبارات کاربردی ارمنی (Omniglot). مجموعه‌ای از عبارات روزمره با تلفظ. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/armenian.php
عبارات کاربردی گرجی (Omniglot). مجموعه‌ای از عبارات روزمره با تلفظ. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/georgian.php
قاموس Glosbe عربي–هوسا. قاموس مع جُمل أمثلة. https://glosbe.com/ar/ha
نظرة عامة على الهوسا. خلفية عن النبر والجنس وخط بوكو. https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7
बांग्ला भाषा — परिचय. परिचय सभी स्तर — लिपि, ध्वनि और व्याकरण की पृष्ठभूमि। https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE
ਗੋਏਥੇ ਇੰਸਟੀਚਿਊਟ ਭਾਰਤ. ਭਾਰਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਜਰਮਨ ਕੋਰਸ ਅਤੇ ਇਮਤਿਹਾਨਾਂ ਲਈ। https://www.goethe.de/ins/in/en/index.html
광둥어가 중고한어의 입성 운미 -p, -t, -k를 보존한다는 점에 관해, cf. Stephen Matthews and Virginia Yip, Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), 'Tones' and 'Finals'; '입성(checked tone)'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checked_tone
네이버 독일어사전. 발음 기호·예문·동사 활용표를 갖춘 무료 독일어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리. https://dict.naver.com/dekodict/
네이버 스페인어사전. 발음 기호·예문·활용형을 갖춘 무료 스페인어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리. https://dict.naver.com/eskodict/
네이버 프랑스어사전. 발음기호·예문·동사 활용표를 갖춘 무료 프랑스어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리하게 사용할 수 있습니다. 전 레벨 https://dict.naver.com/frkodict/
세르반테스 문화원 서울(Instituto Cervantes Seúl). 스페인 정부 공식 어학 기관. 서울 강좌·도서관·DELE 시험 정보. https://seoul.cervantes.es/
알리앙스 프랑세즈 서울 (Alliance Française de Séoul). 비영리 프랑스어 교육 기관. 서울 외 부산에도 지점이 있으며, 다양한 회화·문화 프로그램을 제공합니다. 전 레벨 https://www.afseoul.com/
주한 독일문화원 (Goethe-Institut Korea). 서울 소재. A1부터 C2까지 전 레벨 강좌와 국제 공인 괴테 시험(Goethe-Zertifikat) 응시 가능. 독일어 학습의 가장 공신력 있는 기관. https://www.goethe.de/ins/kr/ko/index.html
주한 프랑스 문화원 (Institut français de Corée). 서울 소재. A1~C2 전 레벨 코스와 공식 자격 DELF/DALF 시험을 볼 수 있습니다. 프랑스 정부가 운영하는 가장 공신력 있는 기관입니다. 전 레벨 https://www.institutfrancais-coree.com/
표준(하노이) 베트남어의 여섯 성조(ngang, huyền, sắc, hỏi, ngã, nặng)에 관해, cf. Laurence C. Thompson, A Vietnamese Reference Grammar (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1987); 'Vietnamese phonology'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology
한국어 어휘의 약 60~70%가 한자어라는 점에 관해, cf. Ho-min Sohn, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 'Sino-Korean vocabulary'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary
한월어 읽기가 8세기경(당대) 중고한어 음운을 반영하며 한국 한자음과 같은 기원을 공유한다는 점에 관해, cf. Nguyễn Đình-Hòa, Vietnamese (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1997); 'Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary
홍콩언어학학회(LSHK) 粵拼(Jyutping) 안내. 광둥어 병음 표준 https://lshk.org/jyutping-scheme/
アンスティチュ・フランセ日本（Institut français du Japon）. フランス政府公式の語学・文化機関。東京・横浜・大阪・名古屋・関西に拠点があり、A1〜C2のコースと公式資格 DELF/DALF を取得できます。全レベル https://www.institutfrancais.jp/tokyo/
ウィキペディア・ユネスコ危機言語資料. 音韻・文法の概観と保存状況。 https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%88%E5%B7%9E%E8%AA%9E
セルバンテス文化センター東京（Instituto Cervantes）. スペイン政府公式の語学機関。講座・図書館・DELE 検定の情報。 https://tokio.cervantes.es/jp/
台山話資源網（Taishanese Language Home）. 字典、拼音與音檔，學台山話最實用的網站。 https://www.taishandict.com/
台湾教育部《台湾闽南语常用词辞典》. — 权威线上辞典，附发音与例句。 https://sutian.moe.edu.tw/
台湾教育部《客语辞典》. — 权威线上客语辞典，附发音。 https://hakkadict.moe.edu.tw/
吴语协会 / 吴语学堂（wu-chinese.com）——吴语拼音方案、发音教程与在线小词典（MiniDict）。可信度：中。 http://wu-chinese.com/
吴语小词典 (MiniDict). 上海话字词查询与读音。 http://wu-chinese.com/minidict/
客家委员会（台湾）. — 客语学习与文化资源。 https://www.hakka.gov.tw/
日中の漢字の「空似言葉」(false friends) と新字体・簡体字の差異について、cf. 'Sino-Japanese vocabulary' および 'Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary
法国文化协会中国（Institut français de Chine）. 法国政府在华文化机构，在成都、重庆、北京、上海、武汉、沈阳、西安均设有中心，提供语言课程、文化活动及 DELF/DALF 考试报名服务。全级别 https://www.institutfrancais-chine.com/
法语联盟中国（Alliance Française Chine）. 在北京、上海、成都、广州等多个城市设有分部，提供 A1–C2 全级别课程，并可参加官方 DELF/DALF 认证考试。是最权威的法语学习机构之一。全级别 https://www.alliancefrancaise.cn/
现代汉语词典 / 汉典. 漢字・熟語のピンインと意味を調べられる定番の中国語辞典サイト。 https://www.zdic.net/
維基百科：Taishanese. 聲韻系統與對應規律的概覽。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taishanese
越南语常用语（Omniglot）. 常用短语与发音。 https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/vietnamese.php
闽东语汉字—罗马字转换器. 罗马字转换器中级 — 汉字与 BUC 互转的实用工具。 https://transliterationtools.blogspot.com/2023/11/eastern-min-conversion-tool.html